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the jealousy of Turkish officials interrupted his labors. ] for safety. He was retained a close prisoner, and on His collection then comprised thirteen thousand articles, his escape was speedily recaptured. He died in and in 1872 it was submitted to the examination of the captivity in 1884. experts of the British Museum. It was purchased by Mr. J. Taylor Johnston of New York, and presented to the Metropolitan Museum of Fine Arts in that city. Gen. Cesnola brought the collection to New York, and spent several months in arranging and classifying the contents; then, returning to Cyprus, he resumed his investigations, and identified the sites of several ancient cities. In 1875 he explored Curium, and the treasures here found in a vault of a temple were afterward added to the collection in the Metropolitan Museum. This now comprises forty thousand objects of great archæological value. Gen. Cesnola has published an account of his work in Cyprus: Its Ancient Cities, Tombs, and Temples (1878). In 1879 he was appointed director of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. He has been elected a member of several European academies, and has received the degree of LL. D. from Princeton and Columbia Colleges. Serious attacks have been made on the genuineness and authenticity of Gen. Cesnola's discoveries, especially by Mr. Clarence Cook of New York. An unpleasant controversy also arose between Gen. Cesnola and Mr. Feuardent, who had been employed as an archæological expert in repairing many of the articles exhibited. A tedious lawsuit which ensued ended in February, 1884, in favor of Gen. Cesnola.

CETEWAYO, CETYWAYO, or KETCHWAYO (died 1884), king of the Zulus, was the son of Panda, or Umpande, who was known as one of the most peaceable and quiet chieftains of his race. Cetywayo in 1854 had a quarrel with his brother Umbulazi regarding the succession, and, with their father's permission, they decided the question by a combat, in which Umbulazi was slain. Cetywayo afterward became regent. His father died in 1872, and in the following year Cetywayo was crowned by Mr. Shepstone, a representative of the Natal government, and soon showed a disposition to return to the extreme savagery of his warlike uncles, Dingaan and Chaka. His rule over his own subjects was atrociously severe. His army, organized with skill and well disciplined, consisted of fifty thousand men, grouped in fifteen "black" regiments of unmarried men, and eighteen "white," or married, regiments. There was an old dispute between the Zulus and the Transvaal boers regarding certain land near the Natal frontier. In 1878 Cetywayo's threatening attitude toward the Natal colony caused much uneasiness; and the ultimatum of Sir Henry Bulwer, the colonial lieutenant-governor, requiring the disbandment of the Zulu army being disregarded by Cetywayo, Lord Chelmsford, on Jan. 11, 1879, threw four columns of troops into the Zulu country. On the 22d a British camp at Isandhlwana (Isandula) was overpowered by twenty thousand Zulus, after a stubborn resistance, and nearly fourteen hundred were slain, over one-half being regular European troops. Almost instantaneously the post at Rorke's Drift was assailed; but its one hundred and thirty-nine defenders repelled the Zulus, three thousand strong, with great slaughter. On April 2, while marching to the relief of Ekowe, Chelmsford gave the Zulus a severe defeat at Ginghilovo. On June 1, Prince Napoleon was surprised and slain near Edutu Kraal. The war was ended by the British victory of July 4, four thousand men completely defeating twenty thousand Zulus; the chiefs and people everywhere submitted. Cetywayo himself was made prisoner Aug. 28, and taken to Cape Town. He was afterward sent to England, but in 1882 he was restored to his dominions, now considerably restricted in area and importance, while a British resident was placed in virtual control of Zululand. In the autumn of 1883, Cetywayo was hunted out of the country by his former subjects. He was compelled to give himself up to the British troops, and by them was sent to Natal

CHADBOURNE, PAUL ANSEL, LL.D. (18231883), an American educator, was born at North Berwick, Maine, Oct. 21, 1823. At the age of nineteen he entered Phillips Academy, Exeter, N. H., and passed thence to Williams College. He graduated in 1848, and after serving as a tutor in the same institution was made professor of chemistry and botany in 1853. While still retaining this position he was (in 1859) made professor of the same branches in Bowdoin College. He also took part in a scientific expedition to Florida, and in another to Greenland. In 1867 he was elected president of the University of Wisconsin, being also professor of metaphysics. By his wisdom and energy the number of students was greatly increased. In 1870 he resigned this position on account of ill-health, but in 1872 he accepted the presidency of Williams College, where he was equally successful. He did not confine his labors to educational matters, but was prominent in religious and political affairs. In 1876 he was a delegate to the national Republican convention, and in 1880 he presided over the Massachusetts State convention of the same party. He died in New York City, Feb. 23, 1883. He was noted for his wide range of scholarship, his practical sense, and his executive ability. His chief publications were Natural Theology (1867) and Instinct in Animals and Men (1872).

CHADWICK, JOHN WHITE, an American Unitarian minister, was born at Marblehead, Mass., Oct. 19, 1840. Leaving school at the age of thirteen, he entered a store, and afterward worked at shoemaking until 1857, when he went to the Bridgewater State Normal School. Graduating there in 1859, he pursued further studies at Exeter Academy, and in 1861 entered the divinity school at Harvard University. Upon his graduating, in 1864, he was invited almost immediately to the charge of the Second Unitarian Society, in Brooklyn, N. Y., and has remained in that charge to the present time (1884). In the Unitarian denomination his position is on the extreme left wing, unequivocally rationalistic and anti-supernatural. He has contributed extensively to the Unitarian periodical literature, and to other publications. His writings in book-form are A Book of Poems; Life and Sermons of Rev. N. Augustus Staples, his predecessor in Brooklyn; The Bible of To-day, a course of eight lectures on the contents of the Bible; The Faith of Reason, a course of lectures on the leading topics of religion; The Man Jesus; Some Aspects of Religion; and Belief and Life.

CHAIN-MAKING. Most of the chains used in the United States are of foreign manufacture. The decline of the shipbuilding industry in America has kept the chain-makers of the United States from striving to develop a large output, and the business has been established as a regular industry only since 1870, when it was undertaken in Troy, N. Y., and in Philadelphia. The making of small chains by machinery has also been begun in Pittsburg, Machine-made chains are not regarded with as much favor as hand-made chains, because the welding is not so sure as when the heat is determined by the eye of a skilled workman and the welding is done with the hammer.

The workman, taking a rod of the required diameter, brings it to a red heat, and then cuts it to the required length by placing the end against a stop and cutting the bar on a knife-edge by means of hammer blows. The rod is at once returned to the fire, and the piece cut off is bent into a U-shape over the nose of the anvil; this done, the U-shaped link is thrust into the last link of the already made chain, and put into the fire to attain a welding heat, whilst the workman cuts off and bends into shape another piece of the rod; when the link to be welded is at the right heat it is taken out and welded by blows of the hammer upon a nose of the

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right form for the inside of the link, and is then a hammer" chain in shop-parlance. Should it be desired to finish the link to a uniform diameter of iron, a "dolly"-which resembles a hammer-head with a semicircular groove of the proper diameter is placed upon the weld, and the end of the link hammered into a true round.

The principal varieties of hand-made chain in the market are known as open-link chains, stud chains, and flat or twisted-link chains. The open-link chains are made of open ovals left just as bent by the chain-maker. The stud chains have each link strengthened by a castiron brace across the middle before being welded up at the end, and may be safely subjected to a high tensile stress. Flat chains have the links twisted so as to coil flatwise on a drum when used for hoisting. In the case of large chain cables the links are sometimes made of lengths of iron cut at an angle, so that the ends will overlap and are bent by expensive machinery, so that the weld will come at the side instead of the end of the link.

It required some time for chains to displace hempen cables in the ground-tackle of vessels, the opinion of mariners being that the elasticity of hempen rope eased the vessel when struck by heavy seas, and that when necessary to slip cable it would require much more time to cut a chain than rope. The discovery that the sag of chain cables sufficed to ease vessels almost as well as the elasticity of hempen cables, however, finally caused their introduction, and effected a great economy and assured greater safety. Hempen cables rot from their alternate exposure to water and air, and sometimes cut from chafing on rocky ground. Chain cables are now furnished with bolts at every 10 or 15 fathoms, which enable mariners to slip a cable with greater case than formerly was reached by cutting a hempen cable.

household or office use are, in the United States, mostly made by machinery. The principal machines employed for this purpose are the chair-stuff sawing machine, the chair-seat machine, chair-back machine, the chair-seat boring machine and the chair-mortiser. Chair-back machines may be simply band or jig saws, that cut out the curved back-piece which is placed on the top of the pillars of the chair-back. Moulding or rounding-machines, for chair-backs, have a holder for the stuff, which is moved against a rotary cutter of peculiar shape, the stuff travelling in a prescribed path, so as to receive the conformation desired. Scraping, dressing and polishing machines for chairbacks are similar in their mode of presentation of the stuff, but differ in the character of the tool or appliance to which the work is presented.

The chair-seat machines include the planing machines, by which the wooden bottoms of the chairs are rounded out. The depth of penetration is governed by side guides, which raise and lower the bed relatively to the revolving cutter, or the latter relatively to the bed which carries the chair-seat. Lemmans' machines for hollowing chair-seats have a pattern-seat, over which a governing ball is moved, determining the depth of penetration of the rotary cutter beneath as it passes over the chair-seat stuff. Machines are also constructed for cutting grooves in chair-seat frames for upholstering purposes or to receive the chair-seat, which is pressed into the frame.

Lemmans' chair-mortiser is the most important of the chair-making machines. It is adapted to all kinds of chair-mortising, and serves also as a horizontal boring and mitering machine.

The principle of the machine is rotary. The fixed end of the boring bar moves in a ball-and-socket joint, allowing the bar to revolve and the vibrating end to be moved mortises to those of different curves are produced by the in any direction desired. The variations from straight position of the curved bar upon which the bearing of the movable end of the boring bar slides; when the bar is placed with the curve horizontal the mortises are straight; and they are changed to the greatest curve when the curved part is perpendicular. The range in length of mortise is from boring a hole to a length equal to the greatest travel of the cutting bits; and this range is changed by the stroke of the crank-pin being made greater or less, and also by the arrangement of a handle moving the end of the connecting rod to any position desired, upon a curved rod; which movement produces a greater or less length of the connecting rods. This arrangement will of the machine. The depth of the mortise is regulated give any length of mortise desired, within the capacity by moving the table holding the stuff by a lever in connection with a pinion and rack. The table is raised vertically by a screw and a hand-wheel, and is provided with three clamps of different forms for holding the stuff in the position required for the work. (A. F. H.)

The strength of a chain cable is dependent not only on the quality of the iron used, but also upon the skill and conscientiousness of the workman, but it is sometimes impossible for even the best workman to be sure that the weld is perfect; and for this reason the best makers invariably test their chains before sending them away, and give a certificate of test with the cable. The English admiralty proof-tests have been adopted by the largest makers in Philadelphia, one firm having a testing-machine capable of putting a carefully weighed stress upon chains varying from 25 pounds to 150 tons. The tests required by the English admiralty list are regarded by some as excessive and injurious to the resiliency of the iron. Certainly, nothing but the best quality of iron will withstand these tests unimpaired, but when we consider the awful disasters which have arisen from the breaking of chain cables during a gale we cannot regard a rigid insistence upon the best quality of iron and the most thorough workmanship as other than CHALLEMEL-LACOUR, PAUL-AMAND, a French wise. (W. D. M.) statesman and publicist, born at Avranches, May 19, CHAIRS. The Egyptians were probably the first 1827. He entered the normal school of Paris in 1846, people who made and used chairs. The Egyptian and graduated in 1849. In 1852 he was banished from chairs and stools were from 10 to 28 inches high- France on account of his republicanism. He became quite a range, but probably some were intended for professor of French literature at Zurich in 1856; children, others to be used with foot-stools. In the returned to France in 1859, and was for several years tombs at Thebes, Alabastron, and elsewhere are found editor of the Revue moderne. He was prefect of the chairs of almost all kinds, including many that modern department of Rhône from September, 1870, to Febingenuity has revived. Among them are thrones, ruary, 1871. In January, 1872, he was elected to the conches, folding and reclining chairs, leather-seated, National Assembly for the Bouches-du-Rhône and cane-seated and split-bottomed chairs, and others made Marseilles. He gained distinction as an orator and of ebony inlaid with metals and ivory, or with carved able debater, and belonged to the Left, or advanced backs, sides and legs, often with claw-feet, and uphol- republicans. In January, 1876, he was elected a stered with gorgeous coverings. Illustrations of senator for nine years by the department of BouchesEgyptian chairs show that they left nothing to be du-Rhône. He was the chief editor of Gambetta's desired in regard either to artistic design or to luxurious organ, the République française. He was appointed ease. Such illustrations are to be found in abundance ambassador to Bern in January, 1879, and ambassador in the magnificent Description de l'Empte, as well as to London in 1880. In February, 1883, he entered in Wilkinson's Customs of the Ancient Egyptians. the ministry of Ferry as minister of foreign affairs. The most elaborate chairs of modern construction He has edited the works of Madame Epinay (2 vols., are of course still made and finished by the wood-1869), and has produced, besides other works, La carver and cabinet-maker; but the chairs for every-day Philosophie individualiste (1864).

CHALLENGE, in law, an exception to jurors who are returned to pass upon a cause at its trial.

Challenges are either to the array or to the polls. A challenge to the array is an objection to all the jurors returned collectively, not for any defect in them, but for some partiality or default in the officers who selected, summoned, or arrayed the panel. A challenge to the polls is an objection to one particular juror drawn upon the panel.

CHAM. See NOE.

These

CHAMBERLAIN, JOSEPH, an English Liberal statesman, was born in London, July, 1836. He was educated at University College school, and became a member of a firm of wood-screw makers at Birmingham. From this firm he retired in 1874 with independent means. He had previously taken a deep interest in the welfare of that city, and had become prominent as a public speaker. In 1868 he was made Challenges are either peremptory, principal, or for chairman of the executive committee of the National favor. A peremptory challenge is one made without Education League, and on its behalf conducted an assigning any reasons. Peremptory challenges to the agitation which resulted in the Elementary Education array are not permitted. At common law the defendant Act of 1870. Under this act the first school board in in trials for felonies was allowed thirty-five peremptory Birmingham was elected, Mr. Chamberlain being one challenges to the polls. In most States, by statute, of its members. In 1873 he was chosen president of this number is reduced to twenty, and in some the the board. He was an ardent advocate of free, comprivilege is allowed only where the offence is capital. pulsory secular education, and opposed the compromisNo peremptory challenges were allowed by the common ing policy of Mr. W. E. Forster. In articles in the law in civil cases. They are, however, in some States Fortnightly Review he criticised the conduct of the permitted in such cases to a limited extent by statute. leaders of the Liberal party on this and other important Principal challenges are such as are made for a cause questions, urging aggressive, radical measures. which when substantiated is of itself sufficient evidence he summed up in the motto he suggested for the party; of bias against the party challenging. They may be "Free Church, free land, free schools, and free labor." made either to the array or to the polls. The follow- So bold were his public utterances that many regarded ing are common grounds of principal challenge to the him as desiring not only the disestablishment of the array viz. that the officer making the array is of kin-church, but also a republican form of government. dred or affinity to either party within the ninth degree; Meantime, he was elected an alderman of Birmingham, that such officer is liable to have his goods levied on by and for three years (1873-76) was mayor of that either party, or is his servant, attorney, counsellor, or ad- borough. In 1874 he was presented as a candidate for vocate; that he is some way interested in the question Parliament from Sheffield, in opposition to Mr. Roeto be tried; that either party has brought an action buck, but was defeated. In 1876 he was elected from against him, etc., etc. Birmingham, which he still represents. Among the measures which he has advocated the Gottenburg system of licensing public-houses is noticeable. He has also steadily labored for the objects set forth in his radical programme. In 1880, when the Liberals returned to power under Mr. Gladstone, Mr. Chamberlain was admitted to a seat in the cabinet as president of the Board of Trade, and is regarded as the leader of the radical wing of the Liberal party. He has taken a deep interest in the improvement of the shipping laws, and has brought forward in Parliament an important measure for that purpose.

Principal challenges to the polls may be either propter honoris respectum (from regard to rank), which do not exist in the United States; propter defectum (on account of some defect), as alienage, infancy, lack of statutory requirements, etc.; propter delictum (on account of crime), including cases of legal incompetency on the ground of infamy; or propter affectum (on account of partiality), from some bias or partiality, either actually shown to exist or presumed from the circumstances. Common causes of principal challenges to the polls, propter affectum, are that the juror has before been heard to express an opinion as to the matter in controversy, that he is of kin either by blood or marriage within the ninth degree to either party, or that he has some interest in the issue of the suit.

CHAMBERLAIN, JOSHUA LAWRENCE, LL.D., an American instructor, born at Bangor, Maine, Sept. 8, 1828, studied at a military school at Ellsworth, Me., and graduated at Bowdoin College in 1852; completed Challenges to the favor are those which are made for the theological course at the Bangor Seminary in 1855; a cause which, though not of itself sufficient evidence held a professorship of modern languages in Bowdoin of bias or partiality, nevertheless affords reasonable College 1855-62; was engaged 1862-65 in the military ground to suspect that such bias or partiality may service of the United States, attaining the rank of exist. Challenges to the favor may be either to the major-general of volunteers and division commander array or to the polls. Common instances of challenge in the Potomac army. He was in twenty-four pitched for favor to the array are where there is a relation by battles, and was six times wounded. In 1865 he remarriage between the cousin or son of the officer draw-sumed his college professorship. He was governor of ing the panel and one of the parties to the cause, or Maine 1867-71, and from 1871 to 1883 was president where the officer has an action of debt or the like of Bowdoin College. against one of the parties. The same circumstances constitute valid causes for challenge for favor to the polls. At common law, challenges to the favor were not determined by the court, but by triers chosen for the purpose. There is no limit to the number of principal challenges and challenges to the favor which are allowed to the parties both in criminal and civil cases. Challenges to the array may at common law be made at any time prior to the swearing of the petit jury. But this is altered in many States by statute, and now the objection must generally be made on the first day in which the panel appears in court.

CHAMBERS, WILLIAM (1800-1883), a Scottish publisher and author, born at Peebles, April 16, 1800. His family, which was respectable, had lived for many generations in his native town, but had become poor, having met with reverses. He and his brother Robert received a good school education, but on the removal of the family to Edinburgh in 1813 were obliged to shift for themselves. They were ardent readers and very industrious. From 1814 to 1819, William led a hard life as apprentice to John Sutherland, a bookseller. He then embarked in the business in a very small way, his capital being five shillings. He kept a Challenges to the polls are to be made after the em- bookstall, which expanded in dimensions when, by the panelling and before the swearing of the jury. If post-generous loan of £10 from Mr. Robert Miller, he bought poned beyond this point they are too late.

CHALLENGE, in criminal law, a request made by one person to another to fight a duel. The request may be either verbal or in writing. The sending of a challenge is in most civilized countries an indictable offence, for which severe punishment is prescribed. The offence of carrying a challenge is also indictable. (L. L., JB.)

a number of books at a trade-sale. For £3 he purchased a hand-press, with a lot of old types, and taught himself to print. His brother Robert (1802-1871) had been pursuing a similar thrifty course, and in 1829 they projected jointly The Gazetteer for Scotland, which ap peared in 1832. Owing to their intelligence, thrift, and industry their fortunes were steadily improving, and

He

they new projected a work which was greatly to increase the duc D'Orleans was called to the throne by the their means and reputation. This was Chambers's Edin- people. The young prince then went into exile, and burgh Journal, the object of which was to diffuse val- was thenceforth known as the comte De Chambord, uable information to the people at a very cheap rate. taking his title from his estate near Blois, which had It was issued weekly at three halfpence a number. been presented him by a Legitimist subscription. The success was immediate and great; its circulation resided for some years in Scotland and Austria, but in was at once over 50,000 copies, and its influence on pop- 1845 took up his residence in London. In November, ular education can hardly be over-estimated. Cheap 1846, he married Marie Thérèse Beatrice Gaëtane, the publications became the order of the day. Not long eldest daughter of the duke of Modena, but had no after appeared the Penny Magazine by other hands, children. After 1850 he went to live at the castle of but the Journal owed nothing to it in original idea or Frohsdorf, near Vienna. He adhered to the ancient impulsion. In 1834 they began a series of papers on maxims and ideas of his family, and claimed the throne all topics entitled Information for the People, which of France by divine right. He was a strict Roman had a very large circulation. The Educational Course, Catholic, and entirely devoted to a theocratic reactiona series of manuals for instruction, was begun in 1835. ary policy. After the fall of the empire, in 1870, he They were prepared under the direction of-and some issued several manifestos to the French people. One of them written by-Robert, but published by the firm. of these, dated May 8, 1871, concluded with the These were followed by Tracts and Papers for the Peo- famous phrase, “La parole est à la France, et l'heure ple, in 12 volumes. est à Dieu.' In a later one he renounced the title of Chambord, and signed himself "Henri." The wits of Paris retorted by calling it his suicide. He refused to abandon the white flag of the Bourbons and adopt the national tricolor. The Legitimists and Orleanists constituted for a time, under MacMahon's administration, the majority of the National Assembly, and were disposed to unite in raising him to the throne; but their designs were frustrated by his refusal to make any concessions or compromises. In July, 1883, when believed to be at the point of death, he sent for his cousins, the Orleanist princes, and declared the comte De Paris his successor. He died at Frohsdorf, Aug. 24, 1883.

The excellent Cyclopædia of English Literature, issued in 1844, in 2 vols. 8vo, and reprinted in America, was the work of Robert Chambers, aided by his friend Dr. Robert Carruthers. In 1849, William purchased the estate of Glen Ormiston in Peeblesshire, where he inaugurated many public improvements, and in 1859 he presented to the town of Peebles a library and readingroom, a museum and an art-gallery, and a lecture-hall, all forming "The Chambers Institution.' In 1854 he published Things as they Are in America, and in 1855 American Jottings. The next year was issued the Pictorial History of England and an illustrated History of the Russian [Crimean War. In 1864 he finished a History of Peeblesshire, which had been some time in hand. He was honored in 1865 by being elected lord provost of Edinburgh, and his administration was marked by important sanitary reforms in the city. He had begun in 1859 and completed in 1868 Chambers's Encyclopædia, in 10 volumes, which accomplished its purpose in presenting a library of universal knowledge at once comprehensive, cheap, and handy, He was re-elected lord provost in 1869, and in 1872 received the degree of LL.D. from the University of Edinburgh. After the death of his brother, he issued a volume entitled Memoirs of Robert Chambers, with Autobiographic Reminiscences. During his second term as lord provost of Edinburgh he inaugurated a restoration of the High Kirk of that city, originally called St. Giles Cathedral. The work was completed in 1880, and Mr. Chambers wrote a history of the cathedral as preface to a series of lectures on The Scottish Church (1881). He died in London, May 20, 1883. His chief claim to grateful remembrance lies in his successful effort to provide and diffuse literature of an instructive character and pure moral

tone.

CHAMBERSBURG, a borough of Pennsylvania, county-seat of Franklin county, situated in the beautiful and fertile Cumberland Valley, and on the East Branch of Conococheague Creek. It is also on the Cumberland Valley Railroad, 52 miles west-south-west of Harrisburg. It is substantially built, has good county buildings, an academy, two banks, three weekly newspapers, railway-shops, prosperous manufactures of castings, flour, farm-implements, paper, woollen, furniture, and other goods. Chambersburg is the seat of Wilson College for young ladies, a Presbyterian institution. A large part of the town was burned by the Confederate forces in 1864. Population, 6877.

CHAMBORD, HENRI CHARLES FERDINAND MARIE DIEUDONNÉ D'ARTOIS, COMTE DE (1820-1883), was born in Paris, Sept. 29, 1820. His father was Charles Ferdinand, duc De Berry, second son of the comte D'Artois (afterward Charles X.). Until the revolution of 1830 he was known as the duc De Bordeaux-a title given him in compliment to the zeal displayed by that city in behalf of the Bourbon family in 1814. In July, 1830, Charles X. abdicated in favor of his grandson, with the consent of the dauphin, but

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CHAMPAGNE. See WINES.

CHAMPAIGN, a city of Champaign co., Ill., is 128 miles S. of Chicago, on the Illinois Central Railroad, and 118 miles W. of Indianapolis, on the Indianapolis, Bloomington, and Western Railroad; it is also on the Wabash, St. Louis, and Pacific Railroad. It has two banks (one national), six hotels, three weekly newspapers, twelve churches, a female seminary, and other schools. The city is lighted with gas and has a park. Its industries comprise a flour-mill, twine- and baggingfactory, sugar- and glucose-works, a machine-shop, a foundry, two furniture-factories, manufactures of barrels and carriages, and a hay-press. It was settled in 1854 and incorporated in 1858. Its property is valued at $5,231,000; its public debt is $20,000, and its yearly expenses are $15,000. The population, about threefourths of American birth, in 1880 numbered 5103.

CHAMPFLEURY, the assumed name of JULES FLEURY, a French novelist and general writer. He was born at Laon, Sept. 10, 1821, and after receiving an academical education, for a time assisted his father, who was secretary of the municipality. Then removing to Paris while still quite young, he was employed in a bookstore, and in the course of time formed an intimate acquaintance with other young men of literary tastes and aspirations. He wrote stories and sketches for various journals, and for a year or two engaged with enthusiasm in the strange task of preparing plays for rope-dancers. His story, Chien-Callon (1847), was quickly pronounced by Victor Hugo a masterpiece. His Confessions de Sylvius, which soon followed, was a picture of the Bohemian life of Paris at that time, and to some extent autobiographical. He has since published other recollections of his early friends in his Souvenirs et Portraits de Jeunesse (1872). Among his novels may be mentioned Les Oies de Noël (1852), La Succession le Camus (1857), La Mascarade de la Vie parisienne (1860), La Pasquette (1876). In all he has adhered steadily to his rule of presenting a faithful picture of life and manners, provincial or Parisian, free from artistic exaggerations. His volume on Le Réalisme (1857) was a defence of himself as well as of his friend Courbet, who had adopted the same views in regard to painting. Champfleury's strict fidelity to facts cost him an infinite deal of pains. He studied thoroughly every character, class, and period he had

were built. Many expeditions were fitted out both by the French and by the English successors of the Dutch, and the usual route was by this lake, as it afforded the easiest method of transporting artillery. The portages between Albany and Montreal aggregated only 12 miles. The French forts at Ticonderoga and Crown Point, on the New York shore, were the cause of constant irritation to the English, and finally they were won by the latter as the result of the disasters which caused the French to lose all Canada, in 1759. These two forts were allowed to fall into decay, but they were in the hands of both the Americans and the English during the war of the Revolution; since that time they have by the American general Montgomery on his way to Quebec in 1775. Lake Champlain is noted for two naval battles. On the 11th of October, 1776, the Americans, with eighty guns, under Benedict Arnold, met the British, with ninety guns, under Captain Pringle. The first day's encounter was a drawn battle. During the night the American vessels retreated. On the following day the British vessels overtook the runaways and defeated them. The second battle was on the 11th of September, 1814, when the British fleet, with ninety-five guns, under Com. George Downie, were overcome by the American fleet, with seventy guns, under Com. Thomas McDonough. The result of this victory was that the British army was forced to retire to Canada, and to abandon its mission of subduing the whole country as far south as the city of New York. (F. G. M.) CHAMPLIN, JAMES TIFT, D.D., an American clergyman and teacher, born in Colchester, Conn., June 9, 1811, graduated with honors at Brown University in 1834; was an instructor in that college 1835-1838; pastor of a Baptist church at Portland, Me., 1838-41 ; professor of ancient languages in the college at Waterville, Maine, 1841-57; and president of the college 1857-72. He published an edition of Demosthenes on the Crown (1843), Demosthenes' Select Orations (1848), Eschines on the Crown (1850), First Principles of Ethics (1861), A Text-Book of Political Economy (1868), also an Intellectual Philosophy, Greek and English grammars, a translation of Kühner's Latin grammar, and other educational works, including an edition of Butler's Ethics.

occasion to depict. In due course he became the acknowledged chief of a realistic scnool, though his successors have pushed to an extreme the principles he first exemplified. His examination of popular tastes and customs led him into another department of literature, in which he published first the Chants et Chansons populaires des Provinces de France (1860), then a volume of investigation in regard to the Legende du Bonhomme Misère (1861). These studies of popular literature led him soon after to undertake a complete history of caricature in France. The first volume, Caricature ancienne, was published in 1865; others followed, tracing the progress of this branch of art in the Middle Ages and under the Renaissance, the League, the Rev-never been kept in repair. This was the route taken olution, the Empire, and the Restoration. The fifth volume, Caricature moderne, treats of three principal types; and two volumes on the works of Henry Monnier and Daumier, published in 1879, complete the work. A singular and characteristic book on cats, Les Chats (1868), produced in the mean time, was honored with a medal by the Paris society for the protection of animals. Another direction in which Champfleury has been active is in ceramic art. His first publication on this subject was Histoire des Faïences patriotiques sous la Révolution (1867), which was followed by Ilistoire de Imagerie populaire (1869). In 1872 he was appointed by M. Jules Simon keeper of the ceramic museum at Sèvres, and faithfully devoted himself to the care and arrangement of that famous collection. In 1881 he published Bibliographie céramique, giving an account of all works on pottery and ceramic art that have appeared in Europe and the East since the sixteenth century. His latest work is Les Vignettes romantiques (1882), an illustrated volume on the art and literature of 1830. Champfleury has also written on education. CHAMPLAIN, a lake of North America lying between the States of New York and Vermont, and extending beyond their northern boundary a short distance into Canada. It was called by the Indians "The Lake which is the Gate of the Country a very appropriate name, since it lies in the basin between the Adirondacks on one side and the Green Mountains on the other. The strategic importance of this lake was discovered by the explorer Samuel de Champlain, governor of Canada, who traversed its waters in 1609 on his way to destroy the Iroquois. The lake was called "Corlear's Lake" by the Iroquois, who thus honored a favorite Dutch governor. Its length from north to south is 126 miles (about 105 in direct line). The breadth varies from 40 rods to 15 miles, the widest unobstructed portion being ten miles in breadth; the southern portion is a mere channel through a marsh. There are about fifty islands of various sizes, the larger ones being at the northern end. According to Emmons its greatest depth is 600 feet. The principal rivers or the Vermont_shore are the Otter, the Winooski (or Onion), the Lamoille, and the Missisquoi. On the New York shore the rivers are the Saranac, the Chazy, the Au Sable, and Wood Creek. The latter streams abound in scenery of the most romantic character, the western shore being very precipitous. There are on this shore large deposits of iron-ore. The Vermont shore is more fertile, owing to the marbles and other limestone rocks, that enrich the soil by disintegration. The Champlain Canal, on the south, gives access to the Hudson River, and the outlet-the Richelieu River on the north gives access to the St. Lawrence River. The surface of the lake is about 90 feet above tide-water. Salmon, trout, pike, and other varieties of fish are found in great numbers. The chief towns are Burlington, in Vermont, and Plattsburg, in New York. Lines of steamers run to the various points on the lake during the season of navigation.

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Lake Champlain has a history that far surpasses that of any other American lake in interest. As early as 1666 there were French forts along its shores, which threatened the Dutch settlements at the south, the French having claimed the territory on which the latter

CHANCELLORSVILLE, a place in Spottsylvania county, Va., near the Rappahannock River, about 50 miles south-west of Washington and 11 west of Fredericksburg. It is noted as the scene of a battle fought May 2-4, 1863, between the Union army under Gen. Joseph Hooker and the Confederate army under Gen. R. E. Lee. After Gen. A. E. Burnside had failed in his attack on Fredericksburg, Gen. Hooker had been appointed to the command of the Army of the Potomac, Jan. 26, 1863. By his judicious measures its morale was restored and its reorganization effected. At the end of April it contained 131,491 men and was divided into seven corps: First, under Gen. J. F. Reynolds; Second, Gen. D. N. Couch; Third, Gen. D. W. Sickles; Fifth, Gen. G. G. Meade; Sixth, Gen. John Sedgwick; Eleventh, Gen. O. O. Howard; Twelfth, Gen. H. W. Slocum. The cavalry, which numbered 11,541, was commanded by Gen. George Stoneman, and the artillery, which comprised 400 guns, was under the direction of Gen. H. J. Hunt. The Confederate Army of Northern Virginia_chiefly lay in its entrenchments on the heights above Fredericksburg, though there were strong earth-works guarded by sufficient detachments along the Rappahannock from the confluence of the Rapidan to Skinker's Creek, a distance of twenty-five miles. Gen. James Longstreet, with the greater part of his corps, had been sent to Petersburg; but two of his divisions, under Gens. Anderson and McLaws, numbering 17,000 men, formed Gen. Lee's left wing, while or the right was the Second Corps, under Gen. T. J. Jackson (immortalized as "Stonewall"). This corps of 33,400 men had four divisions, commanded by Gens. A. P.

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