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In 1851 he published Memoirs of James H. Perkins; | returned to France and solicited a command from the in 1852, together with R. W. Emerson and J. F. Clarke, minister of war: it was at first withheld, but after he published the Memoirs of Margaret Fuller Ossoli, the revolution of Sept. 4 he was appointed in October and soon after a book on The Christian Church and a general of division, and thus gained the first importSocial Reform. In 1857 he went to England, and was ant step in a very honorable career. In November he the successor of James Martineau at the Hope Street was placed in command of the Sixteenth corps, a part Unitarian chapel in Liverpool for four years. Return- of the Army of the Loire, with which he fought valing at an early period in the Civil War, he was settled iantly at Coulmiers, and gained a decided advantage as pastor of a small Unitarian church at Washington, at Patay. This caused his appointment in December but soon after the war went to England again, and has as commander-in-chief of the second Army of the since resided mainly in London, where in 1872 he pub- Loire, with which he gained great glory. Amid allished, from Dr. Channing's manuscripts, a posthumous most universal disaster he achieved partial successes, volume of sermons called The Perfect Life. (F. B. S.) especially in the second battle of Coulmiers, which CHANNING, WALTER, M.D. (1786-1876), was caused Gambetta to say that he was "a veritable warborn at Newport, R. I., April 15, 1786. He entered rior revealed by events. He continued to fight against Harvard College in 1804, but did not graduate, leaving odds and obstacles, checking the enemy at Beaugency, college in 1807 on account of some controversy with the Josnes, Marchenoir, and Origny. But for the capitufaculty. He studied medicine in Boston and Philadel- lation of Bazaine he might have turned the tide of inphia, receiving his degree of M. D. from the University vasion: even after that fatal event he displayed great of Pennsylvania, and afterwards studied in Edinburgh vigor and splendid fighting in retreat during six days and in London. He began to practise medicine in Bos- of continued conflict he inflicted serious losses upon the ton in 1812, and in 1815 was appointed professor of enemy, his own army losing 20,000 men. The truce obstetrics and medical jurisprudence in Harvard Uni- being concluded with Prussia, he urged a continuance versity, continuing to serve until 1854, just before go- of the war, but, peace being arranged, he took an ing abroad. He entered the Massachusetts General active part for the establishment of the republic. In Hospital in 1821, soon after it was opened in Boston, June, 1873, he was sent to Algeria as governor-genand was one of its physicians for nearly twenty years; eral, with the command of the military and naval forces. after which term of service he introduced the use of His administration in that province was marked by the etherization in childbirth in that and other hospitals, undertaking of important internal improvements, inand wrote a book concerning the new benefaction to cluding the construction of railroads, the establishment surgery, Etherization in Childbirth (1848). This trea-of meteorological stations, etc. In 1875 he was elected tise, which related the history of nearly 600 cases coming senator for life. In Jan., 1879, he was a prominent under Dr. Channing's own observation, did much to candidate, against his wish, for the presidency of the make etherization common in Europe and America. French_republic; in February he was sent as ambassaHe continued in practice till beyond the age of eighty, dor to Russia, and in passing through Berlin was reand also cultivated literature a little, publishing Mis-ceived with marked courtesy by the emperor and Prince cellaneous Poems (1851), A Physician's Vacation (1856), Bismarck. This last appointment caused his retirement Reformation of Medical Science (1857).. from the army. In 1871 he published The Second Army of the Loire ("La deuxième armée de la Loire"), an account of his own military operations. He died at Chalons, Jan. 4, 1883.

CHANTAL, JEANNE FRANÇOISE FREMIOT, BARONESS DE (1572-1641), known in the Roman Catholic Church as ST. JEANNE DE CHANTAL, a French religious, born at Dijon in 1572. She was the daughter of Fremoit, president of the parlement of Dijon, and her character was very early marked by exalted devotion and zeal for religion. Married at twenty to the baron De Chantal, and widowed at twenty-eight, she took a vow of perpetual widowhood, thenceforth devoting herself to the aid of the suffering poor and the instruction of her own children. In 1604 she came under the spiritual guidance of St. Francis de Sales, and with his help established at Annecy the order of the Visitation in 1610, but full papal approval was not bestowed till 1626. Before her death (at Moulins, Dec. 13, 1641) the new sisterhood had eighty-seven houses. She was beatified in 1751 and canonized in 1767. One of her grandchildren was the celebrated Madame de Sévigné. Madame de Chantal was a woman of strong and pure character. Her relations to St. Francis de Sales have been made the subject of some discussion, but nothing has ever been alleged to indicate that their mutual respect and esteem had in it any unworthy element.

CHANZY, ANTOINE EUGÈNE ALFRED, (1823-1883), French general, born at Nouart, in the Ardennes, March 18, 1823. At the age of sixteen he entered the navy, in which he remained but a year. Six months after leaving it he enlisted in the Fifth regiment of artillery, and was admitted to St. Cyr in 1841, from which time he passed his grades to that of captain in 1851. He was then sent to Africa, and appointed chief of the bureau at Tlemcen. As a major he was recalled, and served in the Italian campaign of 1859. As colonel of the Fortyeighth regiment of the line he was with the troops that occupied Rome in 1864. Soon after he returned to Algeria, and served during the great insurrection there: in Sept., 1868, he was appointed a brigadier-general and placed in command of two divisions of the territory. Upon the declaration of war against Prussia he

CHAPIN, EDWIN HUBBELL, D. D. (1814-1880), a Universalist minister and popular orator, was born at Union Village, N. Y., Dec. 29, 1814. He was educated at a seminary at Bennington, Vt., began to study law, but soon turned his attention to theology, and became pastor of a small congregation at Richmond, Va. Public attention was early drawn to Mr. Chapin's merits as a public speaker. In 1840 he was called to a church at Charlestown, Mass., and in 1846 to Boston, and two years later to New York. He was one of the most attractive and eloquent public lecturers in the United States. Several of his publications are of a devotional character, as Hours of Communion, Crown of Thorns, Token for the Sorrowing. Some are series of pulpit discourses, as those on The Lord's Prayer and the Beatitudes, Characters in the Gospel, Moral Aspects of City Life, Humanity in the City, and The Book of Proverbs. He considered no subject beyond the range of the pulpit, and was an earnest advocate of social reforms. In 1872 he became editor of the Christian Leader, the organ of the Universalists. In 1867 his congregation founded the "Chapin Home for the Aged and Infirm." He died in New York, Dec. 27, 1880.

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CHAPIN, WILLIAM, an eminent teacher of the blind, was born in Philadelphia in 1802. He entered early upon a literary career, was author of a Gazetteer of the United States (1839) and of other works, and for six years was in charge of the public schools of Yates county, N. Y. He was superintendent of the Ohio Institution for the Blind 1840-46; founder of a ladies' normal school in New York, and its principal 1846-49; and became principal of the Pennsylvania Institution for the Blind, in Philadelphia, in 1849. He prepared a report to the Ohio legislature (1846) on the benevolent institutions of Great Britain and of and Paris, and wrote the United States census report on the blind for 1860.

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The conical kilns, as they require no braces or bands, | amount of moisture absorbed from the atmosphere. are cheapest in proportion to capacity, and their size Owing to its bulk and porosity, it keeps the materials permits of locating them in nests, so as to maintain in a blast-furnace from packing too closely, and its large a force of employés constantly where the wood-supply exposed surfaces are rapidly oxidized. would not be sufficient to operate continuously a plant of more pretentious structures. The small kilns also can be "turned" (that is, filled, coaled, and emptied) in a shorter time than the larger kilns.

The cost of constructing kilns varies, according to size and location, from $10 to $15 per cord capacity. The conical kilns ordinarily will hold 25 to 50 cords; the beehive kilns, 35 to 60 cords; the rectangular kilns, 50 to 100 cords.

The census of 1880 shows that the average consumption of mineral fuel and coke per pound of iron made in blast-furnaces was 173 pounds; also that, although the average size of charcoal-furnaces is much less than that of those using other fuels, and although 30 per cent. of them do not heat the blast, the fuel-consumption was 1'24 pounds per pound of iron produced. This demonstrates the superiority of charcoal as a metallurgical fuel in average practice.

Charcoal is generally bought and sold by the bushel, but the cubical capacity of this measure is by no means fixed, it varying from 1989 cubic inches to 2844 cubic inches. A number of States have fixed standards of capacity, but the laws regulating this generally provide for special contracts, and hence the standard cannot be said to be in general use. The following are the standard bushels of some of the States: New Hampshire........ 1989 cubic inches New York.. Minnesota

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RETORTS.-The third method of manufacturing charcoal is in closed vessels, the carbonization being effected by extraneous heat; the yield of charcoal under proper treatment is approximately equal to the volume of the wood charged, 50 to 70 bushels being obtained from a cord of wood. Generally, where retorts are used, the acetic vapors arising from the carbonization process are collected, condensed, and converted into methylic alcohol, commercial acetates, and tar. The collection of the acetic vapors is not, however, confined to the use of closed vessels. A number of rectangular kilns are connected by exhausters through trunks, the acetic vapors being utilized as above described. Eighty thousand cords of wood are converted every year into charcoal by this method under Dr. Pierce's patents. The retorts are of three general classes: (a) horizontal, either iron cylinders with one end closed by a suitable door and placed over a fireplace, or a semi-cylindrical iron bottom, forming, with a firebrick arch above it, The last-named and the Winchester heaped bushel of a horizontal cylinder; (b) vertical cylinders of iron | 2688 cubic inches = 1'556 cubic feet are most in favor.

...............

2419.5
Rhode Island..........
...... 2481
Connecticut.............. 2564
Massachusetts
Pennsylvania........ 2571
Montana......

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Maryland.....
Michigan...

Scale 3/4" and foot

FIG. 5.-Mathieu Retort.

placed in furnaces with flues surrounding them: the cylinders are either lifted bodily out of the furnaces and allowed to cool while others are being heated, or the charcoal is drawn out by a cage within the retort; (c) inclined retorts are designed to diminish the labor of filling and emptying the horizontal form, and the most approved are crescent-shaped in cross-section, to secure practically uniform thickness of wood to be acted upon. The illustration (fig. 5) exhibits what is known as the Mathieu retort. E is the opening for filling, and F the opening for emptying, the retort; both are closed by lids suitably secured; G is the pipe to carry off the gaseous products of distillation; and H the tar-drip.

Batteries of a large number of retorts are now placed at some of the more important iron-works. Several of these plants have been erected to utilize the waste wood from large saw-mills, etc., and transform it into fuel for metallurgical purposes.

Acetic acid acts energetically on iron, but as the heat of the retorts is generally sufficient to cause volatilization, they are not destroyed rapidly, unless the acid is allowed to remain in them when it condenses.

The advantages of charcoal as a metallurgical fuel are in its purity and porosity. As used, it is mainly pure carbon, with a small percentage of ash and a varying

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2748

Much charcoal is now sold by weight, 20 pounds being counted as a bushel of 2748 cubic inches of mixed hard and soft woods.

The density of charcoal varies not only with the density of the wood from which it is made, but the process of manufacture. Rapidity of carbonization also affects it. Under similar conditions charcoal produced from hard woods is heavier than that made from soft woods, and that made by slow carbonization is generally heavier than that produced rapidly. The yield of charcoal per cord of wood is influenced greatly by the size and character of timber used. A pile of 4 by 4 by 8 feet is uniformly adopted as a cord, but the volume of solid wood is much greater where the sticks are large, straight, and free from projections. The following percentages of solid wood in piles was determined by the forestry department of Prussia:

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74 07 p. c. (=80 c. ft. per cord).
69 44 p. c. (=75 c. ft. per cord).
55:55 p. c. (=60 c. ft. per cord).
18.52 p. c.
37:00 p. c.

(Vide Journal of U.S. Association of Charcoal-Iron Workers,
vol. iii. p. 20.)

Marcus Bull, in his experiments, found 71 cubic feet plenum or solid dry wood and 564 cubic feet interstices in a carefully-piled cord of perfectly dry wood. These experiments, which were described in a paper read before the American Philosophical Society April 7, 1826, are epitomized in the following table. The charring was done in meilers or heaps; the bushel used approximated the Winchester standard, 2688 cubic inches. (See also Sargent's tables, in the article FUEL.)

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*772 3450 '697 3115 724 3236 *697 3115

25.74 547

⚫815 3643

Liquidambar styraciflua....
Carya alba.......
Carya porcina.......
Carya porcina.........
Hamamelis virginica...
Пех ораса.....

•580 2592 *703 3142 *634 2834 1.000 4469 *949 4241 *829 3705 *784 3505

*602 2691

Carpinus americana....

Acer saccharinum... Acer rubrum...

Magnolia grandiflora......
Quercus prinus palustris.....
Quercus alba..
Quercus obtusiloba?.
Quercus catesbæi..

Quercus palustris.....

Scrub black oak..

Quercus banisteri.

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Yellow oak...

Quercus prinus acuminata...

653

2919

28.78 888 25 *445 23:41 779 19.62 518 27.26 635 19:40 *428 22.52 604 *530 2369 19 *364 19.15 450 *567 2534 20.79 237 12:47 527 *565 2525 24.72 *238 12.52 624 *522 2333 25.29 *379 19.94 590 *597 2668 21.70 411 21.63 579 21 *550 28.94 765 24.85 *357 18.79 644 22.16 *400 21'05 696 19.69 413 21.73 558 26.22 '625 32 89 1172 25.22 *637 33:52 1070 22.90 *509 26.78 848 21.40 *368 19:36 750 22.77 *374 19'68 613 *720 3218 19 *455 23.94 611 *663 2963 24.02 *457 24.05 712 '644 2878 21.43 *431 22.68 617 *597 2668 20.64 *370 19:47 551 *605 2704 21.59 *406 21:36 584 885 3955 22.76 481 25.31 900 *855 3821 21.62 *401 21.10 826 *775 3464 21.50 *437 22.99 747 3339 23:17 *392 20.63 774 *747 3339 22.22 *436 22.94 742 *728 3254 23.80 .387 20.36 774 *728 3254 22.43 *400 21.05 630 *694 3102 22.37 *447 23:52 694 3030 20.86 '436 22.94 632 21.60 *295 15:52 631

745

Spanish oak.. Persimmon..

Quercus falcata........

*548

Diospyros virginiana..

Yellow pine (soft).

Pinus mitis...

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Jersey pine........
Pitch pine........
White pine........

Yellow poplar.

Lombardy poplar... Sassafras

Pinus strobus.

Liriodendron tulipifera...
Populus dilatata......
Sassafras officinalis......
Amelanchier canadensis..
Platanus occidentalis..
Juglans nigra.........

Swamp whortleberry... Vaccinium corymbosum......

Analyses of Woods, by M. Eugène Chevandier.

Pinus inops..

Pinus rigida........

2449 22.95 *362 19.05 562 711 3178 23:44 *469 24.68 745 *551 2463 23.75 ⚫333 17.52 585 *478 2137 24.88 ⚫385 20.26 532 *426 1904 26.76 *298 16.68 510 *418 1868 *563 2516

*397 1774

24.35 *293 15:42 455 21.81 *383 20.15 549 25 *245 12.89 444 *618 2762 22.58 *427 22:47 624 *887 3964 22.62 *594 31.26 897 *535 2391 23.60 *374 *681 3044 22.56 418 687 *752 3361 23:30 *505 26.57 783

19.68 564

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The preceding table, prepared by M. Violette, shows the proportion of water expelled from wood at gradually increasing temperatures. The wood operated upon had been kept in store during two years. When wood which has been strongly dried by means of artificial heat is left exposed to the atmosphere, it reabsorbs about as much water as it contains in its air-dried state. The wood experimented on was that of black alder, or alder TABLE I.-Showing the Composition of Charcoal. Percentage of the solid product. Oxygen,

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buckthorn, which furnishes a charcoal suitable for gunpowder. It was previously dried at 150° C. = 302° Fahr. Table I., showing the composition of charcoal, was also prepared by M. Violette.

Prof. Ledebur burned weighed quantities of charcoal at different temperatures with measured volumes of air, directly determining the amounts of carbonic acid and oxide in the products of combustion, and indirectly the quantity of oxygen consumed. The results of these experiments are given in Table II.

Red charcoal; Fr. charbon roux; Ger. Rothkohle. Sauvage found by experiments that a perfectly charred coal does not give the largest quantity of combustible matter in the smallest volume, but, on the contrary, that this relative quantity increases to a certain point of the process, and then begins to decrease. After the process had been conducted for five hours he claimed to have attained the greatest yield of combustible matter.

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The result here given for the meiler is rather low for good practice.

A company in Mainz, says Percy, prepares wood for fuel by heating it to a degree sufficient to cause incipient carbonization and change its color to reddish brown. The name Rothholz is given to this product. Fresenius recommends it as being easily ignited, and therefore an excellent material for lighting fires; it may be conveniently conveyed and stored, and on burning produces

a copious flame and is capable of developing intense heat. Percy states that the difference in chemical composition between brown (or red), and black charcoal is of itself sufficient to prove that the former has less heating power than the latter. Brown charcoal contains more oxygen and less carbon than black. (J. B.)

CHARITON, the county-seat of Lucas co., Iowa, is on the Chariton River, 55 miles S. of Des Moines, on the Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy Railroad, with branches N. to Des Moines and S. to St. Joseph and Kansas City. It has four hotels, a national bank, a private bank, one daily and two weekly newspapers, nine churches, a normal school, and three fine school buildings with seventeen departments. It has a foundry, a railroad repair-shop, plough-factory, butter-tub factory, and two flour-mills. It is well laid out, with shady streets, and has a park and a good fire department. It was settled in 1847 and incorporated in 1871. Its property is valued at $781,000; its public debt is $3000, and its yearly expenses are $5000. Population, chiefly of American birth, 2648. CHARITIES, in law, are gifts and devises of land and property for general public uses, to be p. 348 Am: applied in accordance with the intention of ed. (p. 401 the donor as expressed in the deed of gift Edin. ed.). or will. Such devises or gifts may be made for the relief of aged, impotent, and poor people; for the maintenance of hospitals or homes for the sick and maimed, and for disabled soldiers, seamen, and marines; for the foundation and support of schools of learning, homes for the support and education of orphans, societies for the aid and support of decayed tradesmen and actors. They may be also made to a municipal corporation for the erection of a town-house for the transaction of town business, or to a municipal corporation for the erection of a suitable college wherein poor orphans may be supported and educated.

See Vol. V.

The statute of 43 Elizabeth c. 4 is considered the principal source of the law of charitable uses, and has given rise to various questions upon the subject; and to the very extensive jurisdiction of the chancery all such matters are referred. This statute and its preamble designate and enumerate the uses which shall be

deemed charitable; and it is now the established rule that no uses shall be deemed charitable and under the protection of the law except such as come within the word or the obvious intent of the statute. It also provides that all charities shall be inquired into and enforced by a commission issuing out of chancery. After the passage of this statute it became a vexed question whether the court of chancery could grant relief by original bill, or whether the remedy was confined to the process by commission; but in the reign of Charles II. it was decided in favor of the original bill in chancery. In England, if a bequest be for a charity, it matters not how uncertain the persons or objects may be, or whether the persons who are to take are in esse or not, or whether the legatee be a corporation capable in law of taking or not; the court will sustain the legacy, and give it effect according to its own principles, and where a literal execution becomes inexpedient or impracticable it will execute it cy pres. In former times so strong was the disposition of chancery to assist charities that in equity assets were held to satisfy charitable uses before debts or legacies, though assets at law were held to satisfy debts and legacies before charities; and this was but in conformity to the civil law, by which charitable legacies were preferred to all others. It is laid down in the books of authority that the king in England, as parens patrice, has the general superintendence of all charities not regulated by charter, which he exercises by the keeper of his conscience, the chancellor; and therefore the attorney-general, at the relation of some informant, when it is necessary, files ex-officio an information in the court of chancery to have the charity properly established and applied. The statute of 9 Geo. II. c. 36 has very materially narrowed the extent and operation of the statute of Elizabeth.

During the dominion of the English Crown over the colonies in America these principles became a part of

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