that the nitrogen of the original mixture is now deter- | Têterol (1878). While composing these novels he had mined. As before stated, all readings are made through been engaged constantly as a critic, and in 1873 he gathe cathetometer, and all volumes corrected for observed thered a number of his articles under the title Études temperature and pressure. The method is accurate, de Littérature et d'Art. His most important politbut slow. ical writings are comprised in the two volumes L'AlleIn the analysis of furnace or other industrial gases magne politique (1870) and L' Espagne politique (1874), by Orsat's apparatus the case is always much simpler, and in contributions to the Revue des Deux Mondes the gases to be determined being usually carbon diox- under the pseudonym of "G. Valbert." He was natide, carbon monoxide, and oxygen. In Orsat's appa-uralized as a Frenchman in 1880, and elected a memratus (fig. 2), by raising the bottle A suitably, the water is made to fill the measuring-tube M up to a zero-mark on the neck, and then, by exhausting the air with the aid of the compression-bulb J, the absorption-liquids are drawn up in the vessels N, P, and K to the marks m', m", m'"', when the stopcocks a, b, and c are closed. The tube S having been exhausted also by the same means through the three-way cock, d, the gas to be analyzed is drawn over into the tube M by lowerering A. The gas having been measured, the cock a is opened, and the gas is sent over into N by raising 4. Here the gas is brought into contact with a strong solution of potassium hydrate, which absorbs the carbon dioxide. When this constituent has been absorbed, the gas is drawn back into M and measured. The stopcock a having now been closed, b is opened, and the gas is drawn into the absorption-vessel P where an alkaline pyrogallic-acid solution absorbs the oxygen. After withdrawal and reading, the gas is sent over into K, where an ammoniacal solution of cuprous chloride absorbs the carbon monoxide. After this absorption the gas, consisting only of atmospheric nitrogen, is finally measured and the results calculated. Gaseous mixtures of the character just indicated can be analyzed with an accuracy sufficing for technical purposes in perhaps one-tenth of the time required for the execution of the same analysis by Bunsen's method. ber of the French Academy Nov. 8, 1881. His public For detailed information on these methods of gas-analy-Of the 5,031,351 acres (7861 square miles) of that sis, the reader is referred to Gasometrische Methoden, von Robert Bunsen, 2te Auflage (Braunsweig, Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn, 1877), or Gas Analysis, by Robert Bunsen, first edition, translated by H. E. Roscoe (Manchester, 1858, and Anleitung zur Chemischen Untersuchung der Industrie Gase, von Clemens Winckler (Freiberg, Engelhardtsche Buchhandlung, 1877). (6. P. S.) CHERBULIEZ, VICTOR, a distinguished French novel'st and critic, born at Geneva, in July, 1829, was descended from a Huguenot family driven from its native land by the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. His father, André Cherbuliez (1795-1874), was professor of Greek and Latin in the academy at Geneva, and published a valuable treatise on Roman Satire, an essay on the Book of Job, and a dissertation on the orator Aristides of Smyrna, all of which are still of interest to students of ancient literature. Other members of the family were distinguished for their attainments and labors in various departments of literature. Victor pursued his studies at Paris, Bonn, and Berlin, and was for a time engaged in classical instruction in his native city. On his return from a visit to Greece in 1859 he achieved fame as an art-critic by his work Un Cheval de Phidias: Causeries athéniennes (1860). He was engaged as a contributor to the Revue des Deux Mondes, and has published in it most of his romances. The first of these was Le Comte Kostia (1863), and its success justified the author in adopting this form of literature. Among his other novels arePaul Méré (1864), in which the story is carried on by letters; Roman d'une Honnête Femme (1866), the heroine of which has been considered one of the most delicate female characters of modern romance; and Meta Holdenis (1873), his greatest work. In this he set forth with wonderful skill an accomplished and charming female hypocrite; and as the story passed through the pages of the Revue such interest in her fate was excited that the author received numerous letters beseeching him to save the girl at last. Cherbuliez has since published Le Fiancé de Mlle. Saint-Maur (1876), Samuel Brohl et Cie. (1877), L'Idée de Jean reserve, less than half is tillable, and only 90,000 acres Their The history of the Cherokees since 1540, when De Soto visited them (he called them Achalaque, which is a fair presentation of the native pronunciation of their tribal name), is a long and involved one. country lay on either side of the Appalachian range, in the upper valley of the Tennessee, and in the Carolinas, extending far south into Georgia and Alabama. In early colonial times they generally adhered to the English, and they made a commendable degree of progress in the arts of peace. Disputes with white settlers led to the bloody war of 1759-63, in which the Cherokees were terribly punished. True to their traditional policy, they assisted the English to some extent during the Revolutionary war, in which they lost much territory to the whites. There was for a long time a division into Western, or hunting, Cherokees, and Eastern, or farming, Indians. A portion of the former went west of the Mississippi in 1790, or earlier, and settled in what is now Arkansas. In 1809, President Jefferson gave his sanction to a plan for removing the remainder of the Western Cherokees, but it was not till 1818 that any large migration took place. Meanwhile, the Eastern Cherokees kept ceding their lands under strong pressure from the whites, treaty See Vol. V. after treaty being made by the United States, yet all | vian missionaries. Even those in the North Carolina treaties were alike inoperative. Most of the tribe after mountains can generally read their own language, al1818 lived in Northern Georgia, upon a comparatively though living among white people who are usually unsmall remnant of their ancient domain. There were able to read. The Cherokees have a translation of the two parties among the Indians-the Ridgeites, who New Testament and of parts of the Old. (c. w. G.) were willing to leave the country, and the Rossites, CHERRY. The cherries of the Old World have who insisted on some measure of their rights. (These found a home in the more temperate retwo factions-the former now about two-thirds as nugions of the United States. Hundreds of merous as the latter-have continued to exist down thousands of young trees are raised annuto the present.) The country and the politicians genally in American nurseries. The seeds are erally seemed willing to sustain the claims of the mostly collected from the naturalized trees which Cherokees, but the State of Georgia, single-handed, abound in many parts of the older States, and which set the authority of the United States at defiance, and are known as "mazzards." Mahaleb seeds, imported successfully insisted that the Cherokees must go. The from Europe, the product of the Cerasus Mahaleb, are general government yielded; a treaty was executed in also in extensive use. The plants are set out in nurs1835 with Major and John Ridge, representing some ery-rows when one year old, budded the succeeding 600 Cherokees, by which it was agreed that the whole summer, and sold when one or two years old from the tribe (about 26,000 strong) was to be removed. In bud. Many improved varieties have been raised in 1838 Gen. Winfield Scott was sent to them with a small America, notably by Dr. Kirtland of Cleveland, O., military force to compel their expatriation. Scott suc- during the middle of the present century, and thes ceeded in effecting his object without bloodshed. After with many of the best varieties of the Old World, the arrival of the Eastern Cherokees in their new comprise the list of kinds grown in American orchards. country, the old feud between the Ridge party and the The best cherry regions are those along the great lakes, Ross party still continued to distract the tribal councils; and the trees grow well on the Pacific coast. There but in 1839 the two Ridges and Boudinot were mur- are few discases of the cherry, the worst being the dered by friends of the Ross party. John Ross be- "black-knot," produced by a minute fungus. It afcame the head-chief, and his party was triumphant. fects principally the morello class, and is much worse A third faction was composed of those Western at some times than others. An infected district may Cherokees who wished to live in primitive Indian again be free for many years. The most troublesome fashion. This party so far yielded to Ross that in 1837 insects are the black aphis and the plum-weevil, which the hunting Cherokees agreed to form a part of the re- last deposits its eggs in the fruit, as in the plum, genunited nation, and since that time they have lost power erally inducing rotting before mature. Birds are the and numbers; but there are still a few Cherokees who worst enemies of the cherry-grower. In the Eastern cling to the use of the old costume and the old way of liv- United States, the cedar-bird, Ampelis cedrorum, is so ing. During the civil war the Cherokees, being slave- destructive as often to be called the "cherry bird." holders, at first took sides with the South, but the major- The cat-bird, Mimus Caroliniensis, and the robin, ity, under Ross and Downing, their chiefs, finally joined Turdus migratorius, eat cherries voraciously when the Unionists; many of the Ridgeites, however, clung they have a chance, and make no scruple of taking to the Confederate cause throughout. In the war of every fruit, if they have the opportunity, as their share 1861-65 the Cherokee country was devastated, and the for the good they otherwise do in keeping down noxipeople suffered great losses; but the tribe is now more ous insects. Large numbers of cherries are divested of prosperous than ever before. Cattle-breeding is the stones by machines, and when dried enter largely into feading element of material prosperity. In 1882 there commercial account. were a large number of freedmen among the Cherokees, and, according to the treaty of 1866, they are entitled to all the rights of native Cherokees; but in point of fact these rights are denied them, although one party among the Indians has strongly asserted the duty of maintaining their treaty obligations. The Cherokee government is in the main modelled after that of the various States, there being executive, legislative, and judicial departments of the government. The public-school system is good, and there are two large seminaries or advanced boarding-schools, a manual-labor school, and an orphan asylum. The other public institutions are an asylum for the blind, deafmutes, and insane, the Capitol building at Tahlequah, the public printing-house, and a jail or prison. The Cherokees have a well-conducted newspaper, printed partly in their own language. Their laws are published in book-form. Manufactures have not been extensively naturalized. Domestic stuffs of several sorts are spun and woven by the women. Lands are not held in severalty, but the acquisition of wealth by individuals is permitted. Most of the expenses of government are paid by the avails of funds in the care of the United States government. Some Delaware and Shawnee Indians and many whites and negroes have been adopted into this tribe, sharing in full the rights and privileges of true Cherokees. The recent progress of the Cherokees, though great, has been much retarded by contention between the Ross and Downing factions. This strife has at times led to bloodshed, and the aid of the United States military has been occasionally required with a view to the maintenance of order. The Cherokees are mostly Christianized, the work having been accomplished chiefly by Baptist, Methodist, Presbyterian, and Mora The varieties of C. sylvestris, the tall, strong-growing species, have been distributed by birds from gardens, and the Cherry is now very common as a wild tree in many parts of the United States, especially in Eastern Pennsylvania. Some of these wild trees are now of immense size. One measured by the writer recently was 9 feet 6 inches round at 4 feet from the ground, and it is believed trees of this size are not uncommon. The timber is excellent, and it is believed that if care were taken to train orchard trees up with tall straight stems the double object of profitable fruit and profitable timber might be secured together. It also makes an excellent fire-wood. The American species, Cerasus serotina, furnishes the best variety for timber purposes. It is a remarkably rapid grower, and generally has a clean, smooth stem 20, or even 30 or 40, feet high. Its usual growth is about 60 feet, though sometimes 80, and trees nine or ten feet in girth are not uncommon. Though a native of most parts of the Atlantic States, it attains its best dimensions in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. The timber is very solid, dark red, takes a fine polish, and when judiciously selected compares favorably with mahogany. It is remarkably heavy. When green it takes only 3637 cubic feet to make a ton of 2000 pounds, just about the same as oak requires. White pine and hemlock take 5714 feet to make the same weight. If well seasoned before using, posts have been known to remain sound for nearly a quarter of a century, but its great value will always be for elegant furniture. The bark makes the well-known "wild-cherry tonic, and an infusion of the berries with brandy and some sugar makes "wild-cherry bitters." It is not found west of the Mississippi, though when under culture it thrives well even on the Pacific coast. Its distinctive names are "Wild Black Cherry" | The Cherry which most nearly approaches the Cherry River, the Elk, Sassafras, Chester, Choptank, Nanticoke, and Pocomoke rivers. There are several groups of small islands in the bay on the eastern side, the principal of which are Tangier, Smith's, and (the largest of all) Kent Island. The main channel of Chesapeake Bay is accessible to the largest sea-going vessels, and every part is well lighted and buoyed. Around its shores are several seaports-Norfolk, with its United States Navy-Yard, on Elizabeth River, at the outlet of the Dismal Swamp Canal and the Albemarle and Chesapeake Canal; Newport News, recently established and rising into importance, at the mouth of the James River, near Old Point Comfort, the site of Fortress Monroe, and adjacent to Hampton Roads; and, farther up the bay, the large city of Baltimore. All these are the termini of great railroad systems from the interior. Besides these two canals, there is the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal, built many years ago eastward from the upper part of the bay, and another, of larger capacity, is now proposed in the same direction. Immense draughts of fish are taken along the shores of this great bay and from its tributary rivers, of which the principal may be named: From salt water, the bluefish, Spanish mackerel, mullet, gray trout, spotted (or salmon) trout, sheepshead, sea-bass, and whiting; and from the rivers, the herring (more properly known as the alewife), shad, sturgeon, black and striped bass, perch, and catfish. Some of these fish are found in both salt and fresh water. Large quantities of menhaden are captured, and used for the production of oil and fertilizers. The oysters of Chesapeake Bay are world-famous, and, while supplying the markets of the neighboring cities, form also an important consignment to the interior and to foreign countries, affording employment to large numbers of persons in their take, canning, and carriage. Among other products of these waters are clams and crabs and the terrapin, a species of tortoise, a notable delicacy of the Maryland cuisine. Nor should be forgotten the flocks of various species of wild-fowls which congregate here in countless myriads during the winter; among these is the CHESAPEAKE BAY is a large land-locked arm of canvas-back duck, so esteemed for its delicate flavor, the Atlantic Ocean included within the States of Mary-acquired by feeding on the wild-celery found here in land and Virginia. It was first explored, in great part, by Capt. John Smith, one of the band of adventurers on board the ships under the command of Capt. Christopher Newport, who entered the bay in the year 1607, commissioned by the London Company, under whose auspices this the first permanent settlement of the English race on this continent was made. The name Chesapeake seems to have been derived from that of a tribe of Indians or from their abode_near Elizabeth River, at the south end of the bay. Its general direction in length is north and south, the entrance between Cape Charles and Cape Henry (lat. 37° N.), and the upper extremity, at the mouth of the Susquehanna River (lat. 39° 35' N.), being both nearly on the meridian of 76° W. long. The length by the main channel is about 200 miles. The lower half of the bay follows a meridional line, varying in width from about 11 miles (15 miles at the entrance) to a maximum of 20 miles, while the upper half bends in a gentle curve, 20 miles at most, convex to the westward, the width diminishing northwardly from about 10 to 3 miles. The bay is set among tertiary and alluvial formations, and hence the shores are flat and in some places swampy, and much indented by small bays or coves, particularly on the eastern shore, the largest of which are known as Tangier Sound and Pocomoke Sound. The western shore receives several large rivers whose general course is from the north-west. The more important of these rivers, reckoning northward, are the James (with its southern affluents, Elizabeth River and the Nansemond), the York, Rappahannock, Potomac, Patuxent, Severn, and Patapsco rivers. The Susquehanna River comes in from the north at the head of the bay, and to this succeed, on the eastern shore, the North-East abundance. The proper regulation of the fisheries is carefully looked after by commissioners on the part of Maryland and Virginia, in co-operation with the United States commissioner of fish and fisheries, who also give much attention to the artificial propagation as well as to the distribution of the eggs and live fish for transplanting in other waters. The importance of these fisheries is shown by the following abstract, made up from the reports of these commissioners furnished for the United States census of 1880: Number of persons employed, 44,872 (of these, 11,064 are factory-hands engaged in the packing, etc.); number of fishing-vessels 2896, and boats 9443; value of capital employed in fishingvessels and boats, apparatus, and factories, $8,256,562; value (to fishermen) of the product of fish (including oysters), $8,346,159. But this, the first value, is estimated to be enhanced from two to three fold before reaching the consumer. Of this latter item, $5,221,715 are contributed by Maryland, and $3,124,444 by Virginia. The estimate of the quantity of oysters taken during the census year is, for Maryland, 10,600,000 bushels; for Virginia, 6,837,320 bushels. (W. L. N.) CHESS, CHEAT, in botany Bromus secalinus, or the rye-like brome grass. It is a native of Europe, but was early introduced into America with agricultura seeds from the Old World, and under the name of Chess or Cheat, has become one of the most noted weeds in American agriculture. It is a very common weed among the crops of wheat and rye in the west of England, where it is called drank, according to Withering, though drake is also given as one of the common names of the darnel, Lolium temulentum, by other authors. The last named is believed to be the "tares" extensive investigation of original records, which, mentioned in Matthew xiii., though some have sus- to his disappointment, proved this claim unfounded. pected the plant we call "Chess" may have been in- But he availed himself of his researches to publish tended, or indeed any other bad weed appearing among the first complete biography of Rogers and his wheat. Webster notes that in searching for the deri- family. He also investigated in the same way the genvation of the word chess, we have to compare it with ealogy of Washington, and disproved some mythical the Persian word khas, which means any bad weed. statements on the subject, though failing to obtain a The name as applied to this plant does not appear to satisfactory account. Having now devoted himself to be in common use in England, though the transmuta- antiquarian pursuits, he procured a written copy of the tive belief with which the plant is connected here had parish register of every church in England, and careits origin in the Old World. The popular English idea fully indexed the whole. In his researches at Westis that grain has all been derived from some original minster Abbey he was cordially assisted by Dean Stantype. Wheat, for instance, changes to rye, rye to ley, and in 1876 he published The Marriage, Baptism, barley, barley to brome grass, and brome grass to and Burial Registers of the Collegiate Church or Aboats. In America the prevalent belief is that wheat bey of St. Peter, Westminster, which was dedicated to changes directly to Chess or Cheat; and the belief is Queen Victoria. The remarkable merits of this laso widespread that even intelligent pens are yet often borious work have been acknowledged by the highest employed in the advocacy of the supposed change. The authorities in English history and biography. Col. belief that one form of plant may be evolved or may Chester was one of the founders of the Harleian Sospring from another parent form is widely held by ciety in 1869, and was a member of several historical naturalists of the present day; but the laws of morph- societies. He was honored with the degree of LL.D. ology are now so well understood that, whatever an evo- from Columbia College, and in 1881 received the delutionist might be willing to concede any given variety gree of D. C. L. from the University of Oxford. He of wheat might turn to, he would pronounce such a died in London, May 26, 1882. He was a man of change as from wheat to Chess an impossibility. The fine personal appearance, a fluent and pleasing writer, belief in the transmutation seems to arise from the and as an antiquary accurate and indefatigable. His fact that chess-seed is almost always in company with established reputation for fidelity procured for him acwheat, or is in the soil from former seedings, ready cess to family records guarded with scrupulous care. to spring into vigorous growth whenever circumstances He was an expert in the handwriting of the past six favor. Sometimes wheat is winter-killed, and the centuries, but unfortunately much of his investigation Chess, having sole possession of the ground, grows so has not been given to the world. Among his early vigorously as to seem like the crop originally sown. publications were Greenwood Cemetery, and Other Only for its interference with the wheat crop it has Poems (1843), and a Treatise on the Law of Repulsion some agricultural value. It has been grown as green (1853). In London he published John Rogers, the feed, and found to be preferred to green oats by horses. Compiler of the First Authorized English Bible, the It makes excellent hay. Many years ago it was intro-Pioneer of the English Reformation,, with his Writings duced into the United States under the name of "Willard's Grass" as a variety of great value, and very high prices paid for the seed until it was discovered to be the veritable Chess already wild here. The seeds are said to have the same effect as darnel when ground up with wheat as flour for bread; that is, they give it bitterness and a narcotic effect. There is, however, reason to believe, from some recent experiments in Scotland, which seem to have been carefully made, that there is no ground for this reputation in darnel, and probably none for Chess either. Chess is an annual plant, and very easily eradicated by keeping the ground infested by it under hoed crops for two years. (T. M.) CHESTER, the county-seat of Randolph co., Ill., is on the Mississippi River, at the mouth of the Kaskaskia, 80 miles below St. Louis, and is the terminus of the Wabash, Chester, and Western Railroad. It is lighted with electric light, has six hotels, a bank, two weekly newspapers, seven churches, and three schools. There are also two flour-mills, two grain-elevators, an iron-foundry and machine-shop, and manufactures of barrels and soda. The Southern Illinois penitentiary is in the city, and the convicts are employed in boot- and shoe-making. Chester was settled in 1832, and incorporated as a city in 1855. Its property is valued at $1,800,000, though assessed at less than one-third of this amount. Its public debt is $66,400, and its expenses for the year ending April, 1882, were $11,500. The site is elevated and the sur rounding country picturesque. There are coal-fields and iron-mines in the vicinity. One-half of the inhabitants are of German birth. Population, 2580. CHESTER, JOSEPH LEMUEL, LL.D., D. C. L. (18211882), an American author and antiquary, was born at Norwich, Conn., April 30, 1821. After a residence for some years in Philadelphia, he went to London in 1858 as an agent for the manufacturers of the Snider rifle. Henceforth his residence was in London, and he contributed to both American and English periodicals. Having long supposed himself to be a descendant of John Rogers, the first martyr of the English Reformation, he entered upon an and a Genealogy of his Family (1861). Besides the Registers of Westminster Abbey, he edited several valuable records for the Harleian Society. Its CHESTER, a city of Pennsylvania, on the west bank of the Delaware River, at the mouth of Chester creek, 10 miles south-west of Philadelphia. It is on the Philadelphia, Wilmington, and Baltimore Railroad, and on the Philadelphia and Chester branch of the Reading Railroad. From the southern suburb of Lamokin a branch railroad extends to the westward. Chester was settled in 1643 by the Swedes, who called it Upland; and this was doubtless the first European settlement within the present limits of Pennsylvania. It is now an important manufacturing centre. industries include cotton goods, printing, dyeing, oilrefining, and the production of castings, steel, machinery, brass goods, edge-tools, pipes, tubes, yarns, cotton and woollen jeans. cassimeres, dyes, oil-cloths, doors, window-sash, bricks, pottery, carriages, draintiles, belting, shoes, morocco, etc. One of its shipyards for the construction of iron vessels has a worldwide reputation. Chester became a city in 1866. It has one private and two national banks, two daily and four weekly newspapers, a system of graded public schools (including high schools), and a military academy of high grade. Near the city is the Crozer Theological Seminary (Baptist). The population in 1880 was 14,997, and it has since much increased. CHESTERTOWN, the county-seat of Kent co., Md., is on the W. bank of the navigable Chester River, 3 miles from its entrance into Chesapeake Bay and 30 miles directly E. of Baltimore, with which it has daily communication by steamer. It is the terminus of the Kent County Railroad. It has a courthouse, national bank, two weekly newspapers, and six churches, and is the seat of Washington College, founded in 1782. It is surrounded by a peach- and grain-growing country, and has manufactories of carriages, agricultural implements, straw-paper board, and artificial fertilizers. It is one of the oldest towns in Maryland, and in colonial times carried on a large trade with England. Population, 2359. CHESTNUT. The Chestnut is believed to be only See Vol. V. naturalized in Europe, and that it was gradp. 528 Am. ually introduced or spread by degrees from ed. (p. 608 Asia Minor, through Greece, to Italy, and Edin. ed.). from thence over Europe. There appears to have been large forests of Chestnuts in Italy during the time of the Roman emperors. It is believed that the Latin name, Castanea, is derived from Castanum, an ancient town in Thessaly. It exists in Japan, and during the American Centennial Exposition a collection of Japanese woods was on exhibition, among them Chestnutwood under the native name of" Kuri.' The Japanese form, the American form, and the form now known in Europe are all very closely allied, and, though in some works known as Castanea Japonica, C. Americana, and C. vesca respectively, are all united by Alph. de Candolle under the name of Castanea vulgaris, or Common Chestnut." Some authors, however, contend for the indigenous character of the Chestnut in Europe, but the well-known comparisons between the flora of the Atlantic United States and the flora of Japan, and the greater resemblance of the European to the Japanese rather than to the American form, favor the idea that the latter is an Asiatic immigrant since the time when the peculiar characteristics of the American were formed. The chief of these characteristics is the smaller size of the leaf-buds, leaves, and fruit in the American species, though the trees themselves under equally favorable circumstances grow nearly as large. In Europe some enormous specimens have been recorded, though the figures concerning them vary. For instance, there is, or was recently, a large one on Mount Etna, which is given as 160 feet, 190 feet, and 204 feet round by three several authorities. Trees of 50 feet in circumference have often been recorded in Europe; 20 to 30 feet are common measurements there, and are not unusual in America wherever the trees grow by themselves in fairly good soil. The height is from 70 to 80 feet, though some have been known to reach 100. They are supposed to be long-lived, and this is unquestionable as regards European trees; but in America the writer knows of numbers of very large specimens, certainly about 100 years old, that are beginning to decay; and this may be taken as the average age of the tree. It is found throughout the whole of the Atlantic portion of the United States east of the Mississippi River, except the extreme north-eastern portion, reaching elevations of over 2000 feet. Naturally, it seems to thrive best in the hilly regions. In low lands it is sometimes found very vigorous, though attempts at culture on the prairies have not been very successful. In the hilly districts it often suffers in very dry seasons. The injury does not show till the following year, when large, chiefly the uppermost, branches either die or grow in a sickly manner. This has often given rise to the impression reported in American works on forestry that the tree is unaccountably dying out in some locations. But young trees soon come up to replace the older ones injured by the drouth. It is one of the most useful trees in American forests. For railroad purposes it is not used where oak can be freely obtained; but Professor Augur reports that it is used in Connecticut for railroad ties, and very acceptably. It is the great fence-timber of the United States. Chestnut posts and rails bring higher prices than those from any other tree. Chestnut shingles for roofing, and Chestnut barrels for flour and other dry materials, are also popular. It is not good fuel, the dry wood having only a heating capacity of 53, as against 1 '00 for hickory. It weighs about 41 pounds to the cubic foot when well seasoned. Though this indicates light wood, it seems to want the power to absorb moisture when well seasoned, and this gives it its great value for posts, which generally last 30 or 40 years. It is employed to a considerable extent in shipbuilding, being used for frames and for the upper works of steamers and coasting vessels. The Chestnut is also highly esteemed for its nuts. In Europe the fruit is larger than that borne by the American form, and, when boiled, enters largely into the food of the poorer classes in Spain and adjacent countries. The American Chestnut is rarely more than half the size of the European, but is sweeter and is eaten freely as gathered from the tree. The nuts are often attacked by the chestnut weevil, the larva of which feeds on the kernel in the form of a small white maggot or worm," which soon after the fruit is ripe eats its way out and finishes its transformation in the ground. Dr. Packard, however, believes that a few remain in the nuts till spring. The weevil is known to entomologists as Balaninus caryatryphes. A smallgrowing species, Castanea pumila, is known as Chinquepin, and is found in poor soils on mountain-slopes throughout the whole Alleghany range. It usually grows from 6 to 12 feet high, but occasional specimens have been known to reach 40 feet and a circumference of 3 feet. The California Chestnut is not a true Castanea, but is known as Castanopsis chrysophylla. Sometimes it is not more than 2 or 3 feet high, but occasionally rises to 60 or 70 feet. (T. M.) CHEVALIER, MICHEL (1806-1879), a French political economist, was born at Limoges, Jan. 13, 1806. He was the eldest son of a merchant, and was admitted at the age of eighteen to the Polytechnic School, his course in which was followed by one in the School of Mines. He became imbued with the doctrines of St. Simonianism, and published in the Organisateur several articles on this subject, which attracted attention. He afterwards became editor of the Globe, a journal just acquired by the sect as the organ of their peculiar views. He conducted this journal for two years, but a division taking place between the leaders of the sect, he followed M. Enfantin to Ménilmontant, where a sort of monastic community was founded, M. Enfantin being the abbot or père suprême, and Chevalier one of the cardinals. But the Government soon put an end to the eccentricities of this new Church, and Chevalier, as editor of the Globe, was condemned to a year's imprisonment (July, 1832). After the expiration of his term of sentence, which the Government had reduced one-half, he retracted in the Globe all that he had written against the Christian religion, and was sent by M. Thiers on a special mission to the United States in 1832 to study the American system of water and railway communication. He gave two years to this purpose, travelling over the United States, Mexico, and Cuba, and published in the Journal des Débats a series of letters which attracted great attention. These letters were afterwards amplified and published in a separate work, entitled Lettres sur l'Amérique du Nord (2 vols., 1836; 3d ed. 1838). Humboldt considered this brilliant work as a treatise on the civilization of the Western peoples." It was followed in 1838 by a work_received with equal favor, Des Intérêts Matériels en France, etc., a brilliant sketch of the internal improvements planned by M. Mole. He became master of requests and councillor of state (1838), a member of the superior council of commerce and professor of political economy in the College of France (1840), and chief engineer of mines (1841). His lectures at the College of France were very popular, and he continued his contributions to the Journal des Débats, in which he sustained conservative views. He was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1845, but failed to obtain a re-election in 1846 in consequence of his views concerning free trade, of which he had now become an ardent advocate. He earnestly but vainly sought in 1847, with F. Bastiat, to organize in France a reform league on the basis of the Anti-Corn-Law League which had just triumphed in England. After the Revolution of 1848 he vigorously opposed the doctrines of Louis Blane in papers published in the Revue des DeuxMondes, entitled Question des Travailleurs, complemented in the Débats by Lettres sur l' Organization du Travail. On account of the anti-revolutionary sympathies which he displayed in this contest he was dis |