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that the nitrogen of the original mixture is now determined. As before stated, all readings are made through the cathetometer, and all volumes corrected for observed temperature and pressure. The method is accurate, but slow.

In the analysis of furnace or other industrial gases by Orsat's apparatus the case is always much simpler, the gases to be determined being usually carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and oxygen. In Orsat's apparatus (fig. 2), by raising the bottle A suitably, the water is made to fill the measuring-tube M up to a zero mark on the neck, and then, by exhausting the air with the aid of the compression-bulb J, the absorption-liquids are drawn up in the vessels N, P, and K to the marks m', m", m'"', when the stopcocks a, b, and c are closed. The tube S having been exhausted also by the same means through the three-way cock, d, the gas to be analyzed is drawn over into the tube M by lowerering A. The gas having been measured, the cock a is opened, and the gas is sent over into N by raising 4. Here the gas is brought into contact with a strong solution of potassium hydrate, which absorbs the carbon dioxide. When this constituent has been absorbed, the gas is drawn back into M and measured. The stopcock a having now been closed, b is opened, and the gas is drawn into the absorption-vessel P, where an alkaline pyrogallic-acid solution absorbs the oxygen. After withdrawal and reading, the gas is sent over into K, where an ammoniacal solution of cuprous chloride absorbs the carbon monoxide. After this absorption the gas, consisting only of atmospheric nitrogen, is finally measured and the results calculated. Gaseous mixtures of the character just indicated can be analyzed with an accuracy sufficing for technical purposes in perhaps one-tenth of the time required for the execution of the same analysis by Bunsen's method.

For detailed information on these methods of gas-analy.

sis, the reader is referred to Gasometrische Methoden, von Robert Bunsen, 2te Auflage (Braunsweig, Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn, 1877), or Gas Analysis, by Robert Bunsen, first edition, translated by H. E. Roscoe (Manchester, 1858, and Anleitung zur Chemischen Untersuchung der Industrie Gase, von Clemens Winckler (Freiberg, Engelhardtsche Buchhandlung, 1877). (S. P. S.)

CHERBULIEZ, VICTOR, a distinguished French novel 'st and critic, born at Geneva, in July, 1829, was descended from a Huguenot family driven from its native land by the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. His father, André Cherbuliez (1795-1874), was professor of Greek and Latin in the academy at Geneva, and published a valuable treatise on Roman Satire, an essay on the Book of Job, and a dissertation on the orator Aristides of Smyrna, all of which are still of interest to students of ancient literature. Other members of the family were distinguished for their attainments and labors in various departments of literature. Victor pursued his studies at Paris, Bonn, and Berlin, and was for a time engaged in classical instruction in his native city. On his return from a visit to Greece in 1859 he achieved fame as an art-critic by his work Un Cheval de Phidias: Causeries athéniennes (1860). He was engaged as a contributor to the Revue des Deux Mondes, and has published in it most of his romances. The first of these was Le Comte Kostia (1863), and its success justified the author in adopting this form of literature. Among his other novels arePaul Méré (1864), in which the story is carried on by letters; Roman d'une Honnête Femme (1866), the heroine of which has been considered one of the most delicate female characters of modern romance; and Meta Holdenis (1873), his greatest work. In this he set forth with wonderful skill an accomplished and charming female hypocrite; and as the story passed through the pages of the Revue such interest in her fate was excited that the author received numerous letters beseeching him to save the girl at last. Cherbuliez has since published Le Fiancé de Mlle. Saint-Maur (1876), Samuel Brohl et Cie. (1877), L' Idée de Jean

Edin. ed.).

Têterol (1878). While composing these novels he had been engaged constantly as a critic, and in 1873 he gathered a number of his articles under the title Études de Littérature et d'Art. His most important political writings are comprised in the two volumes L'Allemagne politique (1870) and L'Espagne politique (1874), and in contributions to the Revue des Deux Mondes under the pseudonym of "G. Valbert." He was naturalized as a Frenchman in 1880, and elected a member of the French Academy Nov. 8, 1881. His public reception took place May 25, 1882, when M. Renan delivered an eloquent speech of welcome. CHEROKEE INDIANS, a North American tribe See Vol. V. usually grouped with the Appalachian tribes, p. 508 Am. whom they resembled in the degree and kind ed. (p. 585 of their native civilization, and with whom they were associated as neighbors. Their language, however, has few points in common with those of the true Appalachian stock. Gallatin_entertained the supposition (derived from the fact that all its syllables end either in a vowel or in a nasal sound) that the Cherokee tongue has a remote affinity with the Iroquois, but this is hardly to be conceded. Two dialects are spoken, and a third is lost. (See the Cherokee Grammar of Von Gabelentz.) The Cherokees are to-day the first of the Indian tribes of the United States in intelligence, prosperity, and social and moral progress. This number of Cherokees upon their own reservation in 1882 was 20,336. Besides these, there were reported, in 1881, 2200 Cherokees in North and South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Tennessee. Some 19,000 Cherokees in Indian Territory wear citizen's dress, and 16,000, it is said, can speak the English language. There are among them over 60 churches and some 33 missionaries. In 1882 there were 2000 white intruders upon the Cherokee reserve. Of the 5,031,351 acres (7861 square miles) of that reserve, less than half is tillable, and only 90,000 acres are actually tilled; about 200,000 acres are fenced. The tribe in that year raised 65,000 bushels of wheat 750,000 of maize, 55,000 of oats and barley, 44,500 of vegetables, 750,000 pounds of cotton, and 12,000 tons of hay. They own 12,000 horses, 1300 mules, 75,000 neat-cattle, 110,000 swine, and 15,000 sheep. Besides the above reserve, there are large areas of unoccupied Cherokee lands far to the west and south-west of their present territory. The Cherokee reserve in Jackson, Swain, Cherokee, Graham, and Macon counties, in North Carolina, comprises 65,211 acres, of which some 5000 are tilled. Their only noteworthy crop is that of maize, which is given at 25,000 bushels. A considerable migration of these Indians to the main nation is going on at the expense of the United States government.

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The history of the Cherokees since 1540, when De Soto visited them (he called them Achalaque, which is a fair presentation of the native pronunciation of their tribal name), is a long and involved one. Their country lay on either side of the Appalachian range, in the upper valley of the Tennessee, and in the Carolinas, extending far south into Georgia and Alabama. In early colonial times they generally adhered to the English, and they made a commendable degree of progress in the arts of peace. Disputes with white settlers led to the bloody war of 1759-63, in which the Cherokees were terribly punished. True to their traditional policy, they assisted the English to some extent during the Revolutionary war, in which they lost much territory to the whites. There was for a long time a division into Western, or hunting, Cherokees, and Eastern, or farming, Indians. A portion of the former went west of the Mississippi in 1790, or earlier, and settled in what is now Arkansas. In 1809, President Jefferson gave his sanction to a plan for removing the remainder of the Western Cherokees, but it was not till 1818 that any large migration took place. Meanwhile, the Eastern Cherokees kept ceding their lands under strong pressure from the whites, treaty

mountains can generally read their own language, al-
though living among white people who are usually un-
able to read. The Cherokees have a translation of the
New Testament and of parts of the Old. (C. W. G.)
CHERRY. The cherries of the Old World have
found a home in the more temperate re-
See Vol. V.
p. 509 Am. gions of the United States. Hundreds of
ed. (p. 586 thousands of young trees are raised annu-
Edin. ed.). ally in American nurseries. The seeds are
mostly collected from the naturalized trees which
abound in many parts of the older States, and which
are known as mazzards." Mahaleb seeds, imported
from Europe, the product of the Cerasus Mahaleb, are
also in extensive use. The plants are set out in nurs-
ery-rows when one year old, budded the succeeding
summer, and sold when one or two years old from the
bud. Many improved varieties have been raised in
America, notably by Dr. Kirtland of Cleveland, O.,
during the middle of the present century, and thes
with many of the best varieties of the Old World,
comprise the list of kinds grown in American orchards.
The best cherry regions are those along the great lakes,
and the trees grow well on the Pacific coast. There
are few discases of the cherry, the worst being the
"black-knot," produced by a minute fungus. It af
fects principally the morello class, and is much worse
at some times than others. An infected district may
again be free for many years. The most troublesome
insects are the black aphis and the plum-weevil, which
last deposits its eggs in the fruit, as in the plum, gen-
erally inducing rotting before mature. Birds are the
worst enemies of the cherry-grower. In the Eastern
United States, the cedar-bird, Ampelis cedrorum, is so
destructive as often to be called the "cherry bird."
The cat-bird, Mimus Caroliniensis, and the robin,
Turdus migratorius, eat cherries voraciously when
they have a chance, and make no scruple of taking
every fruit, if they have the opportunity, as their share
for the good they otherwise do in keeping down noxi-
ous insects. Large numbers of cherries are divested of
stones by machines, and when dried enter largely into
commercial account.

after treaty being made by the United States, yet all | vian missionaries. Even those in the North Carolina treaties were alike inoperative. Most of the tribe after 1818 lived in Northern Georgia, upon a comparatively small remnant of their ancient domain. There were two parties among the Indians-the Ridgeites, who were willing to leave the country, and the Rossites, who insisted on some measure of their rights. (These two factions-the former now about two-thirds as numerous as the latter-have continued to exist down to the present.) The country and the politicians_generally seemed willing to sustain the claims of the Cherokees, but the State of Georgia, single-handed, set the authority of the United States at defiance, and successfully insisted that the Cherokees must go. The general government yielded; a treaty was executed in 1835 with Major and John Ridge, representing some 600 Cherokees, by which it was agreed that the whole tribe (about 26,000 strong) was to be removed. In 1838 Gen. Winfield Scott was sent to them with a small military force to compel their expatriation. Scott succeeded in effecting his object without bloodshed. After the arrival of the Eastern Cherokees in their new country, the old feud between the Ridge party and the Ross party still continued to distract the tribal councils; but in 1839 the two Ridges and Boudinot were murdered by friends of the Ross party. John Ross became the head-chief, and his party was triumphant. A third faction was composed of those Western Cherokees who wished to live in primitive Indian fashion. This party so far yielded to Ross that in 1837 the hunting Cherokees agreed to form a part of the reunited nation, and since that time they have lost power and numbers; but there are still a few Cherokees who cling to the use of the old costume and the old way of living. During the civil war the Cherokees, being slaveholders, at first took sides with the South, but the majority, under Ross and Downing, their chiefs, finally joined the Unionists; many of the Ridgeites, however, clung to the Confederate cause throughout. In the war of 1861-65 the Cherokee country was devastated, and the people suffered great losses; but the tribe is now more prosperous than ever before. Cattle-breeding is the leading element of material prosperity. In 1882 there were a large number of freedmen among the Cherokees, and, according to the treaty of 1866, they are entitled to all the rights of native Cherokees; but in point of fact these rights are denied them, although one party among the Indians has strongly asserted the duty of maintaining their treaty obligations.

The Cherokee government is in the main modelled after that of the various States, there being executive, legislative, and judicial departments of the government. The public-school system is good, and there are two large seminaries or advanced boarding-schools, a manual-labor school, and an orphan asylum. The other public institutions are an asylum for the blind, deafmutes, and insane, the Capitol building at Tahlequah, the public printing-house, and a jail or prison. The Cherokees have a well-conducted newspaper, printed partly in their own language. Their laws are published in book-form. Manufactures have not been extensively naturalized. Domestic stuffs of several sorts are spun and woven by the women. Lands are not held in severalty, but the acquisition of wealth by individuals is permitted. Most of the expenses of government are paid by the avails of funds in the care of the United States government. Some Delaware and Shawnee Indians and many whites and negroes have been adopted into this tribe, sharing in full the rights and privileges of true Cherokees.

The recent progress of the Cherokees, though great, has been much retarded by contention between the Ross and Downing factions. This strife has at times led to bloodshed, and the aid of the United States military has been occasionally required with a view to the maintenance of order. The Cherokees are mostly Christianized, the work having been accomplished chiefly by Baptist, Methodist, Presbyterian, and Mora

The varieties of C. sylvestris, the tall, strong-growing species, have been distributed by birds from gardens, and the Cherry is now very common as a wild tree in many parts of the United States, especially in Eastern Pennsylvania. Some of these wild trees are now of immense size. One measured by the writer recently was 9 feet 6 inches round at 4 feet from the ground, and it is believed trees of this size are not uncommon. The timber is excellent, and it is believed that if care were taken to train orchard trees up with tall straight stems the double object of profitable fruit and profitable timber might be secured together. It also makes an excellent fire-wood.

The American species, Cerasus serotina, furnishes the best variety for timber purposes. It is a remarkably rapid grower, and generally has a clean, smooth stem 20, or even 30 or 40, feet high. Its usual growth is about 60 feet, though sometimes 80, and trees nine or ten feet in girth are not uncommon. Though a native of most parts of the Atlantic States, it attains its best dimensions in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. The timber is very solid, dark red, takes a fine polish, and when judiciously selected compares favorably with mahogany. It is remarkably heavy. When green it takes only 3637 cubic feet to make a ton of 2000 pounds, just about the same as oak requires. White pine and hemlock take 5714 feet to make the same weight. If well seasoned before using, posts have been known to remain sound for nearly a quarter of a century, but its great value will always be for elegant furniture. The bark makes the well-known "wild-cherry tonic," and an infusion of the berries with brandy and some sugar makes "wild-cherry bitters.' It is not found west of the Mississippi, though when under culture it thrives well even on the Pacific

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coast. Its distinctive names are "Wild Black Cherry
and "Choke Cherry." The dwarf Choke Cherry,
Cerasus Virginiana, seldom growing more than ten or
fifteen feet high, is of no known use in the arts. It has
interest to cultivators as being the species which prob-
ably introduced the black-knot. These two are replaced
at the Rocky Mountains and westward to the Pacific by
another dwarf species, Cerasus demissa, the berries of
which form a popular Indian food. They are dried in
the sun, then mixed with meat, which is then pounded
to a jelly, dried, and used for a sort of broth. They
also make a tea of the bark, probably for medicinal
uses. The Indians of the Indian Territory also use the
fruit of the Sand Cherry, Cerasus pumila, in a similar
way. At the season when the fruit is ripe, old and
young turn out for a general cherry-gathering. The
Sand Cherry has shining, willowy leaves, and seldom
grows higher than five or six feet. In the Southern
United States there is an evergreen species, Cerasus
Caroliniensis, known as "Cherry Laurel,'
," "Wild Or-
ange," and "Almond Cherry.' It is popular as an
ornamental tree, but of no commercial value. In this
it resembles the Cherry tree of Eastern Asia. In the
poetry of China and Japan cherry-blossoms play a
prominent part; but Japanese visitors to the United
States find it hard to convince their countrymen that
in America Cherries are accounted a delicious fruit.
The Cherry which most nearly approaches the Cherry
of the Old World is the "Wild Red Cherry," Cerasus
Pennsylvanica. The small red fruit is borne in bunches,
much as the cultivated kinds are. The smooth bark is
also of a reddish-brown tint, so that its name is wholly
appropriate. It inhabits chiefly the Northern United
States, extending westward to the Mackenzie River.
The fruit is used for culinary purposes, but is small
and harsh. The tree is too small to have much value
in forestry. Specimens in Northern Pennsylvania are
found from 25 to 30 feet high. It springs up often
in vast quantities after mountain-fires. Some of the
hills in the vicinity of Mount Washington that have
been burned over now have dense growths almost wholly
of this small Cherry.
(T. M.)

River, the Elk, Sassafras, Chester, Choptank, Nanticoke, and Pocomoke rivers. There are several groups of small islands in the bay on the eastern side, the principal of which are Tangier, Smith's, and (the largest of all) Kent Island.

The main channel of Chesapeake Bay is accessible to the largest sea-going vessels, and every part is well lighted and buoyed. Around its shores are several seaports-Norfolk, with its United States Navy-Yard, on Elizabeth River, at the outlet of the Dismal Swamp Canal and the Albemarle and Chesapeake Canal; Newport News, recently established and rising into importance, at the mouth of the James River, near Old Point Comfort, the site of Fortress Monroe, and adjacent to Hampton Roads; and, farther up the bay, the large city of Baltimore. All these are the termini of great railroad systems from the interior. Besides these two canals, there is the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal, built many years ago eastward from the upper part of the bay, and another, of larger capacity, is now proposed in the same direction.

Immense draughts of fish are taken along the shores of this great bay and from its tributary rivers, of which the principal may be named: From salt water, the bluefish, Spanish mackerel, mullet, gray trout, spotted (or salmon) trout, sheepshead, sea-bass, and whiting; and from the rivers, the herring (more properly known as the alewife), shad, sturgeon, black and striped bass, perch, and catfish. Some of these fish are found in both salt and fresh water. Large quantities of menhaden are captured, and used for the production of oil and fertilizers. The oysters of Chesapeake Bay are world-famous, and, while supplying the markets of the neighboring cities, form also an important consignment to the interior and to foreign countries, affording employment to large numbers of persons in their take, canning, and carriage. Among other products of these waters are clams and crabs and the terrapin, a species of tortoise, a notable delicacy of the Maryland cuisine. Nor should be forgotten the flocks of various species of wild-fowls which congregate here in countless myriads during the winter; among these is the CHESAPEAKE BAY is a large land-locked arm of canvas-back duck, so esteemed for its delicate flavor, the Atlantic Ocean included within the States of Mary-acquired by feeding on the wild-celery found here in land and Virginia. It was first explored, in great part, abundance. by Capt. John Smith, one of the band of adventurers on board the ships under the command of Capt. Christopher Newport, who entered the bay in the year 1607, commissioned by the London Company, under whose anspices this the first permanent settlement of the English race on this continent was made. The name Chesapeake seems to have been derived from that of a tribe of Indians or from their abode near Elizabeth River, at the south end of the bay. Its general direction in length is north and south, the entrance between Cape Charles and Cape Henry (lat. 37° N.), and the upper extremity, at the mouth of the Susquehanna River (lat. 39° 35′ N.), being both nearly on the meridian of 76° W. long. The length by the main channel is about 200 miles. The lower half of the bay follows a meridional line, varying in width from about 11 miles (15 miles at the entrance) to a maximum of 20 miles, while the upper half bends in a gentle curve, 20 miles at most, convex to the westward, the width diminishing northwardly from about 10 to 3 miles.

The bay is set among tertiary and alluvial formations, and hence the shores are flat and in some places swampy, and much indented by small bays or coves, particularly on the eastern shore, the largest of which are known as Tangier Sound and Pocomoke Sound. The western shore receives several large rivers whose general course is from the north-west. The more important of these rivers, reckoning northward, are the James (with its southern affluents, Elizabeth River and the Nansemond), the York, Rappahannock, Potomac, Patuxent, Severn, and Patapsco rivers. The Susquehanna River comes in from the north at the head of the bay, and to this succeed, on the eastern shore, the North-East

The proper regulation of the fisheries is carefully
looked after by commissioners on the part of Maryland
and Virginia, in co-operation with the United States
commissioner of fish and fisheries, who also give much
attention to the artificial propagation as well as to the
distribution of the eggs and live fish for transplanting
in other waters. The importance of these fisheries is
shown by the following abstract, made up from the
reports of these commissioners furnished for the United
States census of 1880: Number of persons employed,
44,872 (of these, 11,064 are factory-hands engaged in
the packing, etc.); number of fishing-vessels 2896,
and boats 9443; value of capital employed in fishing-
vessels and boats, apparatus, and factories, $8,256,562;
value (to fishermen) of the product of fish (including
oysters), $8,346,159. But this, the first value, is esti-
mated to be enhanced from two to three fold before
reaching the consumer. Of this latter item, $5,221,715
are contributed by Maryland, and $3,124,444 by
Virginia. The estimate of the quantity of oysters
taken during the census year is, for Maryland,
10,600,000 bushels; for Virginia, 6,837,320 bushels.
(W. L. N.)

|
CHESS, CHEAT, in botany Bromus secalinus, or
the rye-like brome grass. It is a native of Europe, but
was early introduced into America with agricultura.
seeds from the Old World, and under the name of Chess
or Cheat, has become one of the most noted weeds in
American agriculture. It is a very common weed
among the crops of wheat and rye in the west of
England, where it is called drank, according to Wither-
ing, though drake is also given as one of the common
names
of the darnel, Lolium temulentum, by other

54

authors. The last named is believed to be the "tares"
mentioned in Matthew xiii., though some have sus-
pected the plant we call "Chess" may have been in-
tended, or indeed any other bad weed appearing among
wheat. Webster notes that in searching for the deri-
vation of the word chess, we have to compare it with
the Persian word khas, which means any bad weed.
The name as applied to this plant does not appear to
be in common use in England, though the transmuta-
tive belief with which the plant is connected here had
its origin in the Old World. The popular English idea
is that grain has all been derived from some original
type. Wheat, for instance, changes to rye, rye to
barley, barley to brome grass, and brome grass to
oats. In America the prevalent belief is that wheat
changes directly to Chess or Cheat; and the belief is
so widespread that even intelligent pens are yet often
employed in the advocacy of the supposed change. The
belief that one form of plant may be evolved or may
spring from another parent form is widely held by
naturalists of the present day; but the laws of morph-
ology are now so well understood that, whatever an evo-
lutionist might be willing to concede any given variety
of wheat might turn to, he would pronounce such a
change as from wheat to Chess an impossibility. The
belief in the transmutation seems to arise from the
fact that chess-seed is almost always in company with
wheat, or is in the soil from former seedings, ready
to spring into vigorous growth whenever circumstances
favor. Sometimes wheat is winter-killed, and the
Chess, having sole possession of the ground, grows so
vigorously as to seem like the crop originally sown.
Only for its interference with the wheat crop it has
some agricultural value. It has been grown as green
feed, and found to be preferred to green oats by horses.
It makes excellent hay. Many years ago it was intro-
duced into the United States under the name of "Wil-
lard's Grass" as a variety of great value, and very high
prices paid for the seed until it was discovered to be the
veritable Chess already wild here. The seeds are said
to have the same effect as darnel when ground up with
wheat as flour for bread; that is, they give it bitterness
and a narcotic effect. There is, however, reason to be-
lieve, from some recent experiments in Scotland, which
seem to have been carefully made, that there is no
ground for this reputation in darnel, and probably none
for Chess either. Chess is an annual plant, and
easily eradicated by keeping the ground infested by it
(T. M.)
under hoed crops for two years.
CHESTER, the county-seat of Randolph co., Ill.,
is on the Mississippi River, at the mouth of the Kas-
kaskia, 80 miles below St. Louis, and is the terminus
of the Wabash, Chester, and Western Railroad. It
is lighted with electric light, has six hotels, a bank,
two weekly newspapers, seven churches, and three
schools. There are also two flour-mills, two grain-ele-
vators, an iron-foundry and machine-shop, and manu-
factures of barrels and soda. The Southern Illinois
penitentiary is in the city, and the convicts are em-
Chester was settled
ployed in boot- and shoe-making,
in 1832, and incorporated as a city in 1855. Its prop-
erty is valued at $1,800,000, though assessed at less
Its public debt is
than one-third of this amount.
$66,400, and its expenses for the year ending April,
1882, were $11,500. The site is elevated and the sur-
rounding country picturesque. There are coal-fields
and iron-mines in the vicinity. One-half of the inhab-
itants are of German birth. Population, 2580.

very

CHESTER, JOSEPH LEMUEL, LL.D., D. C. L. (18211882), an American author and antiquary, was born at Norwich, Conn., April 30, 1821. After a residence for some years in Philadelphia, he went to London in 1858 as an agent for the manufacturers of the Snider rifle. Henceforth his residence was in London, and he contributed to both American and English periodicals. Having long supposed himself to be a descendant of John Rogers, the first martyr of the English Reformation, he entered upon an

Col.

extensive investigation of original records,
his
to his disappointment, proved this claim unfounded.
But he availed himself of his researches to publish
the first complete biography of Rogers and
family. He also investigated in the same way the gen-
ealogy of Washington, and disproved some mythical
Having now devoted himself to
statements on the subject, though failing to obtain a
satisfactory account.
antiquarian pursuits, he procured a written copy of the
parish register of every church in England, and care-
fully indexed the whole. In his researches at West-
minster Abbey he was cordially assisted by Dean Stan-
ley, and in 1876 he published The Marriage, Baptism,
and Burial Registers of the Collegiate Church or Ab-
bey of St. Peter, Westminster, which was dedicated to
Queen Victoria. The remarkable merits of this la-
borious work have been acknowledged by the highest
authorities in English history and biography.
Chester was one of the founders of the Harleian So-
ciety in 1869, and was a member of several historical
societies. He was honored with the degree of LL.D.
He was a man of
from Columbia College, and in 1881 received the de-
His
gree of D. C. L. from the University of Oxford.
died in London, May 26, 1882.
fine personal appearance, a fluent and pleasing writer,
and as an antiquary accurate and indefatigable.
established reputation for fidelity procured for him ac-
cess to family records guarded with scrupulous care.
He was an expert in the handwriting of the past six
centuries, but unfortunately much of his investigation
has not been given to the world. Among his early
publications were Greenwood Cemetery, and Other
Poems (1843), and a Treatise on the Law of Repulsion
(1853). In London he published John Rogers, the
Compiler of the First Authorized English Bible, the
Pioneer of the English Reformation,, with his Writings
and a Genealogy of his Family (1861). Besides the
Registers of Westminster Abbey, he edited several valu-
able records for the Harleian Society.

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CHESTER, a city of Pennsylvania, on the west bank of the Delaware River, at the mouth of Chester creek, 10 miles south-west of Philadelphia. It is on the Philadelphia, Wilmington, and Baltimore Railroad, Reading Railroad. From the southern suburb of and on the Philadelphia and Chester branch of the Chester was settled in 1643 by the Swedes, who called Lamokin a branch railroad extends to the westward. settlement within the present limits of Pennsylvania. it Upland; and this was doubtless the first European It is now an important manufacturing centre. Its industries include cotton goods, printing, dyeing, oilrefining, and the production of castings, steel, machinery, brass goods, edge-tools, pipes, tubes, yarns, One of its shipcotton and woollen jeans. cassimeres, dyes, oil-cloths, doors, window-sash, bricks, pottery, carriages, draintiles, belting, shoes, morocco, etc. yards for the construction of iron vessels has a worldhas one private and two national banks, two daily and wide reputation. Chester became a city in 1866. It four weekly newspapers, a system of graded public The population in 1880 was schools (including high schools), and a military academy of high grade. Near the city is the Crozer Theological Seminary (Baptist). CHESTERTOWN, the county-seat of Kent co., 14,997, and it has since much increased. Md., is on the W. bank of the navigable Chester and 30 miles directly E. of Baltimore, with which it It is the terRiver, 3 miles from its entrance into Chesapeake Bay has daily communication by steamer. minus of the Kent County Railroad. It has a courthouse, national bank, two weekly newspapers, and six churches, and is the seat of Washington College, founded in 1782. It is surrounded by a peach- and grain-growing country, and has manufactories of carriages, agricultural implements, straw-paper board, and artificial fertilizers. It is one of the oldest towns in with England. Population, 2359. Maryland, and in colonial times carried on a large trade

CHESTNUT. The Chestnut is believed to be only | See Vol. V. naturalized in Europe, and that it was gradp. 528 Am. ually introduced or spread by degrees from ed. (p. 608 Asia Minor, through Greece, to Italy, and Edin. ed.). from thence over Europe. There appears to have been large forests of Chestnuts in Italy during the time of the Roman emperors. It is believed that the Latin name, Castanea, is derived from Castanum, an ancient town in Thessaly. It exists in Japan, and during the American Centennial Exposition a collection of Japanese woods was on exhibition, among them Chestnutwood under the native name of "Kuri." The Japanese form, the American form, and the form now known in Europe are all very closely allied, and, though in some works known as Castanea Japonica, C. Americana, and C. vesca respectively, are all united by Alph. de Candolle under the name of Castanea vulgaris, or "Common Chestnut." Some authors, however, contend for the indigenous character of the Chestnut in Europe, but the well-known comparisons between the flora of the Atlantic United States and the flora of Japan, and the greater resemblance of the European to the Japanese rather than to the American form, favor the idea that the latter is an Asiatic immigrant since the time when the peculiar characteristics of the American were formed. The chief of these characteristics is the smaller size of the leaf-buds, leaves, and fruit in the American species, though the trees themselves under equally favorable circumstances grow nearly as large. In Europe some enormous specimens have been recorded, though the figures concerning them vary. For instance, there is, or was recently, a large one on Mount Etna, which is given as 160 feet, 190 feet, and 204 feet round by three several authorities. Trees of 50 feet in circumference have often been recorded in Europe; 20 to 30 feet are common measurements there, and are not unusual in America wherever the trees grow by themselves in fairly good soil. The height is from 70 to 80 feet, though some have been known to reach 100. They are supposed to be long-lived, and this is unquestionable as regards European trees; but in America the writer knows of numbers of very large specimens, certainly about 100 years old, that are beginning to decay; and this may be taken as the average age of the tree. It is found throughout the whole of the Atlantic portion of the United States east of the Mississippi River, except the extreme north-eastern portion, reaching elevations of over 2000 feet. Naturally, it seems to thrive best in the hilly regions. In low lands it is sometimes found very vigorous, though attempts at culture on the prairies have not been very successful. In the hilly districts it often suffers in very dry seasons. The injury does not show till the following year, when large, chiefly the uppermost, branches either die or grow in a sickly manner. This has often given rise to the impression reported in American works on forestry that the tree is unaccountably dying out in some locations. But young trees soon come up to replace the older ones injured by the drouth.

It is one of the most useful trees in American forests. For railroad purposes it is not used where oak can be freely obtained; but Professor Augur reports that it is used in Connecticut for railroad ties, and very acceptably. It is the great fence-timber of the United States. Chestnut posts and rails bring higher prices than those from any other tree. Chestnut shingles for roofing, and Chestnut barrels for flour and other dry materials, are also popular. It is not good fuel, the dry wood having only a heating capacity of 53, as against 100 for hickory, It weighs about 41 pounds to the cubic foot when well seasoned. Though this indicates light wood, it seems to want the power to absorb moisture when well seasoned, and this gives it its great value for posts, which generally last 30 or 40 years. It is employed to a considerable extent in shipbuilding, being used for frames and for the upper works of steamers and coasting vessels.

The Chestnut is also highly esteemed for its nuts. In Europe the fruit is larger than that borne by the

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American form, and, when boiled, enters largely into the food of the poorer classes in Spain and adjacent countries. The American Chestnut is rarely more than half the size of the European, but is sweeter and is eaten freely as gathered from the tree. The nuts are often attacked by the chestnut weevil, the larva of which feeds on the kernel in the form of a small white maggot or worm,' ," which soon after the fruit is ripe eats its way out and finishes its transformation in the ground. Dr. Packard, however, believes that a few remain in the nuts till spring. The weevil is known to entomologists as Balaninus caryatryphes. A smallgrowing species, Castanea pumila, is known as Chinquepin, and is found in poor soils on mountain-slopes throughout the whole Alleghany range. It usually grows from 6 to 12 feet high, but occasional specimens have been known to reach 40 feet and a circumference of 3 feet.

The California Chestnut is not a true Castanea, but is known as Castanopsis chrysophylla. Sometimes it is not more than 2 or 3 feet high, but occasionally rises to 60 or 70 feet. (T. M.

CHEVALIER, MICHEL (1806-1879), a French political economist, was born at Limoges, Jan. 13, 1806. He was the eldest son of a merchant, and was admitted at the age of eighteen to the Polytechnic School, his course in which was followed by one in the School of Mines. He became imbued with the doctrines of St. Simonianism, and published in the Organisateur several articles on this subject, which attracted attention. He afterwards became editor of the Globe, a journal just acquired by the sect as the organ of their peculiar views. He conducted this journal for two years, but a division taking place between the leaders of the sect, he followed M. Enfantin to Ménilmontant, where a sort of monastic community was founded, M. Enfantin being the abbot or père suprême, and Chevalier one of the cardinals. But the Government soon put an end to the eccentricities of this new Church, and Chevalier, as editor of the Globe, was condemned to a year's imprisonment (July, 1832). After the expiration of his term of sentence, which the Government had reduced one-half, he retracted in the Globe all that he had written against the Christian religion, and was sent by M. Thiers on a special mission to the United States in 1832 to study the American system of water and railway communication. He gave two years to this purpose, travelling over the United States, Mexico, and Cuba, and published in the Journal des Débats a series of letters which attracted great attention. These letters were afterwards amplified and published in a separate work, entitled Lettres sur l'Amérique du Nord (2 vols., 1836; 3d ed. 1838). Humboldt considered this brilliant work as a treatise on the civilization of the Western peoples." It was followed in 1838 by a work received with equal favor, Des Intérêts Matériels en France, etc., a brilliant sketch of the internal improvements planned by M. Mole. He became master of requests and councillor of state (1838), a member of the superior council of commerce and professor of political economy in the College of France (1840), and chief engineer of mines (1841). His lectures at the College of France were very popular, and he continued his contributions to the Journal des Débats, in which he sustained conservative views. He was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1845, but failed to obtain a re-election in 1846 in consequence of his views concerning free trade, of which he had now become an ardent advocate. He earnestly but vainly sought in 1847, with F. Bastiat, to organize in France a reform league on the basis of the Anti-Corn-Law League which had just triumphed in England. After the Revolution of 1848 he vigorously opposed the doctrines of Louis Blanc in papers published in the Revue des DeuxMondes, entitled Question des Travailleurs, complemented in the Débats by Lettres sur l' Organization du Travail. On account of the anti-revolutionary sympathies which he displayed in this contest he was dis

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