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often the case, it sometimes becomes necessary to protect the nostrils of the horses at work in the fields. Those who have never witnessed a movement of this kind have a very faint idea of the immense numbers of these insects in a single field of wheat.

Their migrations on foot seldom extend to a greater distance than 80 or 100 rods. When cold weather comes on those of the fall brood leave the now dry and hardened cornstalks and seek secure places in which to remain during the winter. Occasionally they take flight at this time, but usually they seek the most secure places which can be found in and immediately around the field. Corn-shocks, straw-piles, stumps, logs, and fence-rows are used as hiding-places; they even hide beneath the clods and stones when no better places can be found. But many move into the forest or grove if either happens to be near at hand. Sheds, barns, rail fences, and stacks often furnish them with winter quarters. In timbered sections they seek shelter under the leaves and in the crevices of the bark of trees. During the winter they remain in a torpid or semi-torpid state, but are easily warmed into life and activity. As the cold weather becomes more and more severe they press deeper and deeper, if possible, into the inner recesses of their hiding-places. They prefer dry quarters.

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$50,000,000; and it is not probable that the loss to the
nation in that year fell short of $100,000,000.
The discovery of the laws relating to the bearing of
climatic conditions on the chinch-bug's development is
of much practical value, for it enables the farmer to
know beforehand most of the seasons when these in-
sects will not appear in injurious numbers. Thus, if
the year has been unusually wet and rather cool, the
farmer knows that he need have no fear of them
within two years, for in such a season they are reduced
by the unfavorable conditions to a minimum; and two
favorable years are necessary to develop them in ex-
cessive numbers. As a rule, with apparently few excep-
tions, the season following a chinch-bug year is
moist and cool; hence one severe visitation is not
likely to follow another within three years. The his-
tory of these visitations in the North-west, when com-
pared with the meteorological record of that section,
seems to indicate that they seldom appear in injurious
numbers in more than two out of seven years, and but
rarely more than once in seven years. That there are
local visitations to some extent in intermediate seasons
is true, but perhaps if the comparisons were limited to
a given locality the same rule would hold good there.
As the bugs from which the future generations are to
be developed hibernate in the perfect state, hiding in
the rubbish of the fields, it is evident that if they can
be reached and destroyed in their winter retreats their
development will be prevented; and since the females
are much in excess of the males at this season, the lay-
ing of their spring crop of eggs will be largely pre-
vented. If it is possible, therefore, to reach their
winter retreats with fire, this will be the most effectual
method of destroying them where irrigation is imprac-
ticable.

A careful study of their history, and a comparison of the meteorological conditions during and immediately preceding their visitations during the past forty years, have resulted in bringing to light the following laws relating to their increase and diminution: (1) That a more than ordinarily dry and warm season is favorable to their increase, while, on the other hand, more than ordinarily moist or rainy weather is destructive to them; (2) that they never appear in destructive numbers, as in 1871 and 1874, except there have If the season has been dry, and an examination in been two dry seasons in succession, and the latter above the fall shows the chinches to be present in considerable medium temperature. Even with these conditions ful-numbers, although they have done no material injury, filled, excessive multiplication may be prevented by an yet it is almost certain that if the next season is dry, unfavorable intervening winter. Excessive cold does unless killed by an unusual winter, the chinch-bugs may not appear to materially affect them if there is uni- be expected in destructive numbers. It is true that formity; a changeable winter, in which there are warm they sometimes appear in great force when no comspells with rains, followed suddenly by cold, freezing plaint has been made the previous season. If the season weather, is most destructive. The eggs are more easily is wet, examination is unnecessary, but if it is dry, search affected by meteorological conditions than the young or for them should be made by every farmer in the autumn perfect insects. and are destroyed by heavy rains. If before cold weather sets in, and in and around every compelled to deposit all their eggs at one time, an field where found every hiding-place should be promptentire brood might be destroyed by a single drenching ly subjected to a fiery ordeal. If it is found at the time rain, but the female deposits a few eggs daily, the pro- wheat is harvested that the bugs have not taken their cess being carried on for two or even three weeks. departure, this fact may be taken advantage of to destroy them. If the wheat is at once threshed and the straw scattered over the stubble and burned, it will destroy most of those that are there. This practice has been followed in some districts for a number of years by the German farmers, with good results. Irrigation is undoubtedly a most effective method of destroying these pests. It will be found most effectual in the spring after the eggs are deposited. Unfortunately, in the greater part of the region where this species proves most destructive the remedy is not applicable. Rolling the ground with a heavy roller after seeding is thought to be advantageous, for the mother-bug, having to work her way to the roots and underground stem in order to deposit her eggs, is less able to penetrate the hard and compact surface than loose soil.

The eggs of the spring brood usually hatch out in 15 or 16 days. The young commence almost immediately after they leave the eggs to pump the sap of the plant on which they find themselves-a work they continue without cessation through all their stages of growth as larva, pupa, and imago. The consequence is, that they grow rapidly and moult often, undergoing four of these changes during five or six weeks. The length of life from the time they are hatched until they reach maturity is usually from five to seven weeks; from the time the egg is deposited to the perfect state is about 60 days. It is but a short time after they reach the perfect state-a few days only-before they pair and the females deposit their eggs. The insects produced from these constitute the "fall" or "second brood," and pass through the same changes as those of the first brood. The perfect insects of this autumnal brood live through the winter.

The chinch-bug is one of the most formidable insect pests with which the farmers within the wheat-producing area of the United States have to contend. Mr. Walsh estimated the loss from the ravages of the chinch-bug in Illinois alone in 1850 at $4.000,000. Dr. Le Baron estimated the loss to the farmers of the North-west in 1871 at $30,000,000. A careful estimate by counties, from the most reliable data obtainable, showed the loss occasioned by this insect to the States of Missouri and Illinois in 1874 was not less than

We are decidedly of the opinion that the best method of contending with these pests, so far as corn and spring wheat are concerned (for winter wheat is seldom seriously injured by them), is to plant or sow such varieties as mature early. If the season has been dry, and examination in the autumn shows the bugs to be present, and the winter following is not of the character to destroy them, then the seeding and planting should be done as soon as possible in the spring, and oats should be relied upon for the fodder- or feed-crop instead of corn, since oats are less liable to injury than the latter. The summer brood, when compelled to migrate in search of food, move chiefly on foot. Since they all

three months to a year to produce the desired effect. Soft pads are placed between the skin and the wood, and little pain seems to be felt, the bones at that age readily yielding. There is no apparent injury to the brain or the health.

The salmon of the Columbia formed the chief foodsupply of the Chinooks, being taken with the spear and the net. The weaving of baskets and matting formed their principal industry, while their boats, dug out of logs, were very light and shapely. The Chinooks were not a bloodthirsty people, and in their frequent quarrels little injury was done. They were more a commercial than a warlike race, and were very shrewd in their trade-dealings with other Indians. Slavery was practised, as in all the coast tribes, and marriage consisted in the taking as many wives as the husband could buy or support.

The languages of the Chinooks are complex and difficult, and a peculiar dialect has arisen for ease of intercommunication called the "Chinook Jargon. It seems to have originated among the tribes before the advent of the whites, but has been greatly modified and extended by European intercourse. Many French and English terms, in degraded forms, have been introduced by traders and trappers, the dialect serving as a medium of intercourse between the whites and the Indians. There have been published a vocabulary of their principal language and a Dictionary of the Chinook Jargon, both by George Gibbs (1863). The principal tribes or bands were the Watlala, Skilloot, Cathlamet, Wahkiahkum, Clatsop, Klackamas, Calapooya, Yamcally, and Killamook or Tillamook. Their various lanbe-guages seem radically distinct from each other and from the other Indian tongues. Nearly all these Chinook languages are now extinct, being known only by published vocabularies.

go together or in bodies when the movement commences, and the movement is usually in the same direction, it is apparent that if an obstruction can be so placed as to retard their progress, this will mass them in a comparatively small space and render their destruction much easier than when they are scattered through the fields. If the obstruction can be made to bar their progress effectually, they will be compelled to seek food else where or perish. Farmers who are aware of this fact have had recourse to a number of expedients to save their crops. One of the devices employed is to set up boards edgewise around the field or along the side which the bugs are approaching, and to besmear the boards with tar or kerosene. A more common method is to plough a narrow strip around the field, keep it well pulverized by harrowing and rolling, and then plough one or two furrows in this dusty strip. This work should be done over again every day or two, care being taken to keep the strip as thoroughly pulverized as possible, for the bugs cannot travel well through the dust. As the insects attempt to crawl up the sides of the dusty furrows, the loose particles give way and they roll back to the bottom. If they accumulate in the furrows a log or stone must be drawn through them, so as to crush and destroy them. As it is always dry weather when they migrate, it is not difficult to keep the ploughed strip pulverized if the clods are well crushed at first. Ditching is sometimes resorted to. Care should be taken to have the side next the protected field perpendicular. (c. T.) CHINCHILLA, a South American quadruped of the order Rodentia, family Chinchillida; the C. lanigera or C. brevicaudata. Animals of this family long to the hystricine series of simple-toothed rodents; the rootless molar teeth are divided into transverse plates by the enamel folds: the incisiors are short; there is one premolar above and below; the clavicles are perfect. In the genus Chinchilla proper the fore feet are five-toed, though the thumb is very small; the hind feet have four toes; the tail is long and bushy; the ears are large and rounded; the length of C. chinchilla is nine or ten inches, the tail about half as long; the general appearance is squirrel-like. The beautifully soft and fleecy pelage, gray marked with darker, is a well-known article of commerce, formerly, however, in greater demand than it is at present. There are other chinchillas of a different genus, as Cuvier's (Lagidium cuvieri), of larger size, with longer ears and tail, and four-toed on both feet. All are alpine animals, inhabiting the Andes of Ecuador, Bolivia, Peru, and Chili, and noted for the activity they display in skipping among the rocks. They are shy, and chiefly nocturnal in their habits. A much modified member of the Chinchillida is the biscacha (Lagostomus trichodactylus) of the Pampas. (See BISCACHA.) (E. C.)

CHINOOKS, a family of American Indians which formerly occupied the valley of the Columbia River west of the Cascade range and south to Rogue River, between the Puget Sound Indians of the north and the California group of the south. These tribes are closely related in customs, though not in language. They were once a numerous and powerful people, but are now almost exterminated by war, disease, and the advance of the whites. Only a squalid and miserable remnant remains. They are of low stature, and seem to have very little endurance. The face seems more Mongolian in character than that of most other Indians. The peculiar custom of flattening the head, which gave the Western Indians the name of Flatheads, seems to have originated in this region, and the Chinooks were almost the only North American people who persistently practised it. The origin of this custom is unknown. The object is to produce a straight line from the point of the nose to the crown of the head, which is done by binding the infant immediately after birth on a piece of board, while another piece of wood, bark, or leather is placed on the forehead and tied to the plank with strings, which are tightened every day. It takes from

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CHIPMUNK, or GROUND SQUIRREL, a small North American quadruped of the genus Tamias, family Sciuridae, order Rodentia. There are several species to which the name is applicable, that one to which it is usually given being T. striatus of the Eastern United States. Tamias stands on the dividing-line between the true arboreal squirrels (Sciurine) and the marmot squirrels (Arctomyina), rather inclining to the latter. Cheek-pouches are present; the tail is long, bushy, and distichous, though less developed than in Sciurus; the coloration is characteristic, all the species being striped on the back or sides, or both. The teeth vary from pm. to pm. 1-1. 2-2 In T. striatus, the representative species, there are five black stripes, the two lateral of which enclose a white one on each side; the general color is brown, reddening on the haunches; the length of head and body is five or six inches, the tail about two-thirds as much. T. asiaticus is a smaller species common to both hemispheres, more numerously streaked and otherwise different; in North America it runs into several varieties, one of which is T. quadrivittatus. The other species, larger and conspicuously different from the foregoing, are T. lateralis and T. harrisi, of Western and South-western North America; both are light-colored, with a whitish streak on the flanks, which in the first named is set between two black stripes, as is not the case with the other. The chipmunks are provident animals, laying up great stores of nuts and seeds in their retreats; they are generally observed about fences and brush-heaps, among rocks or fallen trees, etc.; they are very active, and climb trees with almost the agility of true squirrels. (E. C.)

CHIPPEWA, a village in Welland county, province of Ontario, Canada, at the junction of the Chippewa and Niagara rivers, about two miles above the Falls. It contains manufactories of steam-engines and stoves. Population, 664.

In this vicinity a battle was fought July 5, 1814, between a British force under Gen. Riall and an American army under Gen. Jacob Brown. On the morning of July 3 the latter, with 3500 men, including two brigades of regulars, had crossed the Niagara above and

surprised Fort Erie, which had a garrison of only 140 men. The next day Gen. Winfield Scott's brigade pushed on to Street's Creek, 16 miles farther. The British army was still north of the Chippewa, but both armies crossed the respective streams on the morning of the 5th, and a spirited action ensued, the result being that the British retreated across Chippewa River, burning the bridge behind them. The honor of the victory belonged to Gen. Winfield Scott, as it was won while Gen. Brown had gone back to hurry up additional troops. The actual forces engaged were, on the British side, 2100, and on the American 1900. The British loss was 503, of whom 135 were killed; the American, 335. of whom 68 were killed.

CHIPPEWA FALLS, the county-seat of Chippewa co., Wis., is on the Chippewa River, 12 miles N. E. of Eau Claire and 90 miles E. of St. Paul, on the Wisconsin and Minnesota Railroad and the Chippewa Falls and Northern Railroad. It has a court-house, jail, four hotels, two banks (one national), three weekly newspapers, five churches, and four schools. The Chippewa River and Duncan Creek here furnish abundant waterpower, which is used in a saw-mill, two planing-mills, two sash-and-door factories, and a shingle-mill. The city is the centre of trade for an extensive lumber region. It was incorporated in 1870, and is lighted with gas. Its property in 1881 was valued at $2,500,000; its public debt was $35,000, and its expenses were $15,000. Population, 3982.

before the New England Society in New York an oration memorable for its eloquence and for the subsequent discussion on some of the principles of church government to which it led. In 1844, Mr. Choate made one of his most able and eloquent speeches in the Senate, against a resolution to give notice to the English Government of the termination of the joint occupancy of Oregon. In the political contest of the same year he earnestly supported the nominee of the Whig party, Henry Clay. On the ground both of unconstitutionality and inexpediency he opposed the admission of Texas.

At the close of the session in 1845 he left the Senate and returned to his profession. Thenceforward, until his death in 1859, there was hardly a case of peculiar difficulty or perplexity before the courts of Massachusetts in which he was not, if possible, retained. He was many times called to other States and to Washington in cases involving legal difficulties or great pecuniary responsibility. During these years, crowded with professional work, he never failed in his love of letters but by resolute determination secured some small portion at least of every day for pursuits which were most congenial to his tastes-for the study of the ancient classics, of history, and of philosophy. A brief tour in Europe in 1850 afforded him a needed vacation and enabled him also to compare more intelligently the characteristics of the older and the newer civilizations. The clear result was to strengthen his patriotism, while CHOATE, RUFUS (1799-1859), an American lawyer it made him, if possible, the more sensible of the perils and statesman, was born Oct. 1, 1799, in that part of which history taught would be likely to follow the Ipswich, Mass., now called Essex. His father, David disruption of the Union. During this era the antiChoate, was a man of strong native sense and unswerv-slavery agitation had received a fresh impulse from the ing integrity, and his mother, Miriam Foster, was acquisition of new territory from Mexico. Mr. Webnoted for a native dignity of bearing, quickness of ster made his memorable speech on the Constitution perception, and ready wit. Their son, early noted for and the Union. The strain upon our institutions was an insatiable thirst for knowledge and an extraordinary so great that the danger of a rupture was imminent. tenacity of memory, began the study of Latin at the Union meetings (so called) were held in many States. age of ten, and after a term at the academy in Hamp- At the meeting in Boston, in Faneuil Hall, Mr. ton, N. H., entered Dartmouth College in 1815. Choate, in a speech profoundly earnest and solemn, The four years which Choate spent at Dartmouth pointed out the dangers which threatened the republic. were critical in the history of the college, being mem- The key to his later life will be found in his dread of orable for the legal contest between the board of disruption and civil war, which he thought he foresaw, trustees and the State legislature. The year after his and in the duty, as he conceived it, which the times graduation he spent as tutor in the college, and in imposed. He enforced this duty in his address on 1820 he entered the law-school at Cambridge, Mass. Washington, delivered in February, 1851, and espeThe next year (1821) he spent at Washington in the cially in an address before the Story Association in office of William Wirt, then Attorney-General of the Cambridge a few months later. In 1853 he was a United States, and finally he was admitted to the bar member of the Massachusetts convention for revising at Salem, Mass., in 1823. He opened an office at the constitution of the State. In July of the same South Danvers (now Peabody), and here and in Salem year he gave at Dartmouth College his memorable euhe spent the early years of his professional life. He logy on Daniel Webster, a production which is unsurwas early sent to the State legislature as a representa- passed in that species of eloquence. tive, and subsequently was a member of the senate, and in 1830 was chosen as a representative in Congress. In April, 1833, he was re-elected, but resigned his office at the close of the first session, having determined to remove his residence to Boston. In that city, the centre of the learning and refinement of New England, stimulated by the larger rivalries of its distinguished bar and by the opportunities of emolument and professional distinction, he devoted himself with immense diligence and earnestness to his chosen profession, nor was it long before he gained recognition as a thorough lawyer, and especially as one of the most ingenious, eloquent, and successful advocates.

In 1841, Daniel Webster having accepted the office of Secretary of State under Pres. Harrison, Mr. Choate was chosen to succeed him in the U. S. Senate. While in that body he spoke on most of the important questions on the McLeod case, the Bank Bill, the confirmation of Mr. Everett as minister to England, the Bankrupt Law, on Mr. Clay's resolution for retrenchment and reform, the Naval Appropriation Bill, the tariff, the bill to provide further remedial justice in the courts of the United States, and more earnestly and eloquently still on the ratification of the WebsterAshburton Treaty. In December, 1843, he delivered

During the next few years Mr. Choate's health began to show signs of failure. His professional business was great and exacting, but, yielding to solicitations from one and another, he found time to prepare a charming lecture on "Sir Walter Scott and the Early British Poets of this Century," and another on the "Eloquence of Revolutionary Periods," and still another on 'Jefferson, Hamilton, and Burr.' His last public effort was an oration on the 4th of July, 1858, on "American Nationality: its Nature, some of its Conditions, and some of its Ethics." He was so weak that he could hardly deliver what he had to say, and his voice was too feeble to fill the hall, but his last public words were, as he wished them to be, in behalf of the one undivided nation which he so warmly loved. During the succeeding autumn and winter his health became more precarious, though he generally went to his office and did not entirely forsake the courts. In the spring of 1859 he determined to try the effect of a voyage to Europe. It was thought that this might relieve his complaints, if it did not lead to a cure. Accordingly, after several disappointments, he sailed for England June 29, but before the ship reached Halifax it became evident that he was not able to continue the voyage. Yielding, therefore, to the a ivice

of friends, he was taken ashore at Halifax, N. S., and died there July 13, 1859. His remains were subsequently taken to Boston and buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery.

Mr. Choate's eloquence was unique, brilliant, fascinating, indescribable. To every subject and every effort he brought his full power of thought and feeling, of imagination and wit. The dullest and driest theme he invested with interest and illuminated by the lights which he flashed upon it from all sources. His logic was concealed by the profusion of graceful imagery, but whoever attempted to break the chain was sure to find links of steel beneath the garland of flowers. His mind was deeply reverential towards God, and the great problems of our nature and destiny were always present to him, modifying his thinking and his life. He died in the full strength of his powers, untouched by age, in the fulness of his fame and in the midst of universal love and respect.

CHOCTAW INDIANS, a North American tribe, See Vol. V. of the stock known as Appalachian, or p. 591 Am. Chahta-Muskoki, its two principal branches Edin being the Muscogees (Muskoki), or Creeks, ed.). and the Choctaws (Chahta). The last named are closely akin to the Chickasaws, the difference in their languages being merely one of dialect. Their country in colonial times lay south-east of that of the Chickasaws and west of that of the Creeks; it is now mainly divided between the States of Alabama and Mississippi. They lived chiefly by agriculture, and formerly had the practice of flattening the heads of their children by pressure. In 1540 they fought a terrible battle with De Soto at their capital, called Mauvilla (whence Mobile was named); afterward they were allied with the French, and later with the English. In the war of 1812-15 they fought for the United States against the Creeks and the English. Georgia offered them full citizenship (but even before 1800 some of the people had begun to cross the Mississippi), and by the treaties of 1820 and 1830 all their original country was ceded to the whites in exchange for lands in the Indian Territory, and for a large gift of goods and money. From 1837 to 1855 the Chickasaws were joined with them in a tribal union, and up to this day their lands are somewhat blended and a slight bond of alliance still subsists. The two tribes have now separate and regular governments. The country is divided into counties. The present Choctaw country lies south of that of the Cherokees and Creeks, east of the Chickasaw lands, and is bounded east by the State of Arkansas and south by Texas. Pine timber and coal are abundant, and silver-bearing lead-ores are reported. The people are making commendable progress. The area of their land is 10,450 square miles. The tribe numbers about 16,000 persons. There are 59 common schools, besides male and female academies and private schools. Promising youths are in many cases sent to college at the public expense. The Choctaws are very generally Christians. They are less progressive in some respects than their neighbors the Chickasaws. Being slaveholders, they were drawn into alliance with the Southern Confederacy in the war of 1861-65, and consequently suffered much. Pressure has been brought upon them to adopt their freedmen as members of the tribe, but this they have thus far refused to do; but in other respects the freedmen and their descendants are treated with kind(C. W. G.)

ness.

CHOLERA, in North America. The first introSee Vol. V. duction of epidemic cholera in North P. 592 Am. America took place in the spring of 1832, ed (P. 682 in connection with the arrival of large numEdin. ed.). bers of emigrants in Canada. At that time there appears to have been no proper system of quarantine on the St. Lawrence. No isolation of persons from ships infected with cholera was attempted, and those who were apparently well were allowed to proceed at once on their journey. Cholera appeared at Quebec, Montreal, and other points in the early part

of June, and from these places spread rapidly, following the lines of travel pursued by emigrants. From the St. Lawrence the disease entered the United States by the way of New York, in which State some twenty cases occurred between June 13 and the end of the month. It is asserted that cholera arrived at the port of New York in infected ships prior to its outbreak on the St. Lawrence, but that for prudential motives the facts were suppressed by the board of health. The disease rapidly spread from New York into adjoining towns and cities. In the following year (1833) the cholera first appeared in the United States in New Orleans, in which city it was epidemic in May. Previous to this time it had become epidemic in Cuba. From New Orleans the disease was carried northward, affecting almost all the large cities in the Mississippi Valley. In 1834 the cholera was again introduced into North America by the way of the St. Lawrence quarantine station, first appearing early in July, from which time it rapidly spread, advancing along the line of the St. Lawrence and from thence into Upper Canada and the United States. In 1835 cholera appears to have been introduced again into the United States from Cuba, and after this year there was an immunity from this disease until 1848.

The following account of its introduction in that year is given by Prof. Alonzo Clark: "Two ships left Havre, one on the 31st of October, the other on the 9th of November, 1848. The latter ship, the New York, was bound for the city of New York; the former, the Swanton, was bound for New Orleans. The passengers of these two ships were of the same character, mostly German emigrants; they had been taken up in both instances at Havre, which port was at that time said to be free from cholera. They had come to Havre for the purpose of finding a ship for this country. One report states that a portion of them had left infected places in Germany. The ships came out with a clean bill of health. The New York had been at sea sixteen days when cholera appeared-that is, on the 25th of November; the Swanton had been at sea twenty-seven days when the first case occurred, it being on the 26th of November. They were 1000 miles apart. They were both off the coast of the United States, one in latitude 25° 47′, and the other in the parallel of 42°. The outbreak on the New York is by the captain of the vessel ascribed to the following fact: A very cold, chilly wind came up on the 24th, and the passengers found themselves in want of warm garments; in his own phrase, there was a general overhauling of baggage for warm clothing.' Then the next day became exceedingly hot, and on that day the first case of cholera occurred. It has been found that on board the ship New York there was an emigrant who had clothing that belonged to an individual who had died in Germany of cholera. During the day of intense cold some articles of this clothing were taken from the chests and were worn by several of the passengers, and these passengers were the first taken on the ship. The two ships go on their voyage. One arrives in the Harbor of New York on the 1st of December, six days after the outbreak, having lost seven of her passengers; the other goes into the Mississippi River and up to New Orleans, having lost several passengers, reaching the city December 11."

On the arrival of the vessel at New York, on the 2d of December, eleven cholera patients were sent to the quarantine hospital. The Swanton reached the city of New Orleans on the 11th day of December, and the day of her arrival one cholera case was sent to the hospital. Two days after her arrival the first case in the city was announced; this was also an emigrant from the Swanton. This was followed by a rapid increase of the disease until the following June, in which month it culminated in more than 2500 deaths. It is however, possible that cholera may have been introduced into New Orleans by emigrant ships several days before the arrival of the Swanton. The disease gradu

Edin. ed.).

ally spread throughout the country during the year disease has been carried far into the interior in the bag. 1849, reaching San Francisco in October. From New gage of emigrants, which baggage had not been opened Orleans it also spread to Cuba and to the Isthmus of since it was packed in infected localities in Europe, and Panama. It is very doubtful whether North America the carriers of which showed no signs of the disease was free from epidemic cholera from this time until until they arrived at their inland destination and opened about the end of 1854. It existed in Cuba in 1851, in their boxes and bundles. This probability is sufficiently 1852, and in the middle of 1852 it appeared in the great to warrant the giving of special attention to the Mississippi Valley, notably in Chicago and St. Louis. opening and thorough aëration and purification in our According to Dr. Alonzo Clark, ships from infected quarantine stations of all luggage brought in by emiports, bringing emigrants suffering from the disease, grants when cholera exists in the vicinity from which arrived in large numbers in the Harbor of New York they have come. (J. 8. B.) in the autumn of 1853. The first appearance of CHOPIN, FRANÇOIS FREDERIC (1809-1849), was cholera following this, however, was not in New York, See Vol. V. born March 1, 1809, at Zela Zowa Wola, near but in Chicago in the latter part of April, 1854, where p. 595 Am. Warsaw, Poland. His father was a private it occurred among recently arrived emigrants, gradually ed. (p. 685 tutor from Paris, who educated the sons of increasing until it was declared epidemic in June. The gentlemen, and among these Frederic found infected ship Glenmanna, on which forty-five passen-suitable companions in his boyhood and became imbued gers had died of Asiatic cholera during the voyage, with the national spirit, although from his mother (who arrived at the quarantine station below Quebec on the was of pure Polish blood) he received the characteristics 15th of June, and this was soon followed by the spread so markedly Sclavonic. At nine years of age Chopin of the disease in Canada. appeared in public as a pianist, playing a concerto and making improvisations, and at nineteen was not only one of the very greatest pianists of the time, but one who had a marked individuality as regards execution, form of the passages executed, and who introduced compositions so original as to reveal a new world of beauty to musicians and art-lovers. Before he was twenty years of age he had given concerts in Vienna, Dantzic, Berlin, Leipsic, Dresden, and elsewhere. In 1836, while in Paris, he first met Georges Sand, to whom he was ever grateful for her kindness in nursing him through the winter of 1838-39, when he suffered from bronchitis. They had retired to Majorca in the autumn, that Chopin might leave the gay and busy life of Paris, which had increased his tendency to consumption. He died at Paris, Oct. 17, 1849. His obsequies were celebrated with great pomp at the Madeleine (Mozart's Requiem forming part of the service, in accordance with his wishes), and he was buried at Père la Chaise, between the graves of Bellini and Cherubini.

The next outbreak of cholera in the United States occurred in the city of New York in May, 1866. Prior to this date a number of vessels arrived at New York from European ports at or adjacent to which cholera was known or reported to prevail, and had been detained for observation and fumigation. Thirty such vessels arrived during the latter part of 1865, and upon some of these deaths from cholera had occurred during the voyage. The disease, however, did not spread beyond the emigrants' hospital on Ward's Island. It is usually considered that the cholera epidemic of 1866 in North America was due to the steamship England, which left Liverpool for New York on the 28th of March, having 1185 German and Irish emigrant passengers. One hundred and sixty cholera cases, with fortysix deaths, occurred on this ship prior to the 9th of April, at which date she put into Halifax. The pilot who spoke her on her arrival, but would not board on account of the cholera, but was towed after her, died on the 11th of March at his home, near Halifax. His five children all had the disease, and two of them died. The health officer who boarded the ship died of cholera on the 17th. On the 18th of April, 1866, the first vessel having cholera on board arrived at the New York quarantine-viz. the steamship Virginia. From this point the disease gradually spread, being carried in part on the lines of emigration and in part by recruits sent out from Fort Columbus, Governor's Island, New York Harbor, in the garrison of which the disease appeared about the 1st of July.

The next outbreak of cholera in the United States began in New Orleans in February, 1873, but there is no satisfactory evidence as to the mode of its commencement or the manner of its introduction. From New Orleans the disease spread to the Mississippi Valley, appearing in Mississippi, Arkansas, and Tennessee in April; in Illinois, Kentucky, Ohio, and Indiana, in May; in Alabama and West Virginia, in June; Georgia and Minnesota, in July; Pennsylvania, Texas, Utah, Dakota, in August; and in New York, in September. An elaborate account of this outbreak was published by Congress under the title The Cholera Epidemic of 1873 in the United States.

The precise origin of the first cases of epidemic cholera in each of the outbreaks which have occurred in this country is difficult or impossible to trace, but in every instance these outbreaks have been preceded by the appearance of the disease in Europe or the West Indies, and by the arrival of ships either known or fairly presumable to have been infected. The course of the disease has followed the main lines of transportation, especially those used by emigrants; and in the epidemics of 1866 and 1867 the evidence of its transmission by parties of recruits and soldiers going from infected parts to the West and South is beyond question. In some cases it seems very probable, though not actually proved, that the cause of the

Chopin has been greatly misrepresented. He has been caricatured in Lucrezia Floriani, and biographers have exalted the poetic side of his nature and artistic powers, as though his music of itself were not worthy so great attention. He was the constant associate and friend of Meyerbeer, Bellini, Berlioz, Balzac, Heine, and Liszt; it is made to appear that he was merely admitted to their charmed circle-in it, but not of italthough he was most truly one of its most illustrious members. Nor has any composer suffered so much as Chopin from becoming popular. When his music attracted amateurs it was played with such exaggerated expression, forced emphasis, variations of speed, temporubato, etc., and ridiculous affectations, that it appeared to ordinary listeners as almost grotesque.

He wrote seventy-four numbered works and seven unnumbered ones, all of which consist mostly of pianoforte concertos, sonatas, études, mazurkas, polonaises, rondos, scherzos, ballades, etc. Chopin so idealized the melodies of his country that they found an echo in many hearts in Europe and America. They remind us of the ingrained sorrows of the Polish people, whose lands were overrun with Mongol Tartars and other peoples, whether these were going east or west in their migrations. He is therefore the representative musician of his country. Although his music is rarely sublime, heroic, profound, or mighty, yet it is never trivial or commonplace, and is as far as conceivable removed from the slightest suspicion of vulgarity.

His shortest nocturnes are extremely delicate and tender. The melodies are embellished with grace-notes that are original, beautiful, and make the sorrow expressed by the music seem more hopeful. The treatment of the harmonies, the rhythms, the forms, and intertwined melodies proves the hand of a most highlytrained, and legitimately-trained, musician. Yet notwithstanding this, his writings are spoken of as amateurish, though clever. Chopin, from excess of modesty,

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