77 66 The principles of the Church are thus formulated: | wide reputation as a champion of evangelical Chris"The oneness of the Church of Christ; Christ the only head; the Bible our only rule of faith and practice; good fruits the only condition of fellowship; Christian union without controversy; each local church governs itself; political preaching discountenanced." A fuller declaration of principles, appended to the minutes of the General Council (1882), contends that "all churches should be organized and governed as New Testament churches were;" that "every Christian giving scriptural evidence of his discipleship has a right to membership in any Christian Church on earth;" that immersion and episcopal ordination are not indispensable conditions to Christian and ministerial fellowship. A manual of church and council business adopted by the same council provides that each local church shall elect its own officers; that when two or more churches are united under one pastorate, the officers of each church shall compose the charge council, whose province it is to hear reports from the pastor and churches, licensed preachers, and Sunday-school superintendents, and decide questions on appeal from decisions of the churches; that three or more charges, not to exceed ten, shall form a district council, to be composed of the officers of the churches, an equal number of delegates, male and female, and the pastors and preachers, and to have power to decide appeals from charge councils and care for missionary and church extension matters; that the annual conference shall consist of the preachers and pastors within its bounds and delegates from the churches, shall require written reports from each pastor and various committees, including one on examination and ordination, and shall have charge of the general work within its limits; that a General Council, consisting of delegates, ministerial and lay, elected by the annual conferences, shall meet quadrennially and have jurisdiction over the whole country. In doctrine the Christian Union is evangelical; as to baptism, it prac(H. K. C.) tises both modes. CHRISTISON, SIR ROBERT, LL.D., D. C. L., F. R. S. (1797-1882), an eminent Scotch physician and toxicologist, was born at Edinburgh, Scotland, July 18, 1797. His father, Alexander Christison, was professor of humanity in the University of Edinburgh. The son entered this institution in 1811, and passed through the literary and medical course, graduating in 1819. He then continued his medical studies at London and Paris, devoting special attention to toxicology. He settled as a physician in Edinburgh, and in 1822 was appointed professor of medical jurisprudence in the university. In 1832 he became professor of materia medica, which position he held forty-five years. He was twice elected president of the Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh. In 1866 he received the degree of D. C. L. from the University of Oxford, and in 1872 that of LL.D. from the University of Edinburgh. He was physician in ordinary to the queen for Scotland, and in Nov., 1871, was created a baronet. He made frequent contributions to medical journals and published several books, of which the most famous is his Treatise on Poisons, which is a standard work on that subject. He died at Edinburgh, Jan. 27, 1882. CHRISTLIEB, THEODORE, D. D., Ph. D., a German evangelical theologian, was born at Birkenfeld, in Würtemberg, March 7, 1833. He was the son of a pastor, and studied theology at Tübingen from 1851 to 1855. He then spent a year at Montpellier, France, as a private tutor, and in 1856 became an assistant pastor in Würtemberg. Two years later he was called to Islington, London, to take charge of a German congregation, and built a church there. In the autumn of 1865 he was made pastor of the court church at Friedrichshafen, on the Lake of Constance, where the king of Würtemberg has his summer residence. In the winter of that year he delivered a series of discourses in the neighboring St. Gall, which were afterwards published under the title Moderne Zweifel am Christlichen Glauben (1868). This work gave him a tianity. It has been translated into English, and pub- See Vol. V. Edin. ed.). The position of the Chronicles as the last book in the Hebrew Bible must be taken as evidence that it was written the latest of the historical books. It is true that there is a unity between the books of Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah, and that the books of Chronicles close abruptly at the point in the history where the book of Ezra begins. Many critics have inferred from this that the whole was first written in chronological order; that at some date after the writing of it the Israelite scribes detached the latter portion, now found in the books of Ezra and Nehemiah, and added it to the canon of Scripture, in order to supplement the history of Israel as contained in the books of Samuel and Kings; and that other scribes still later added the books of Chronicles to the canon. It is much more probable that the compiler of this line of historical books first produced the books of Ezra and Nehemiah to bring the history down to his own time, and afterward, finding himself still in possession of valuable materials, compiled a fresh history to cover the times from the beginning up to the period of which he had already treated-just as Josephus first wrote his Wars of the Jews, and afterward his Antiquities, and in modern times Hume began his History of England with the accession of the house of Stuart, but afterward went back to the invasion of Julius Cæsar. This view of the motive for the writing of the Chronicles is certainly preferable to the view that some Levite, at some indefinite date after the establishment of the services of the second temple, set himself to rewrite the history, so as to authenticate the Pentateuchal ordinances, thus remedying what he regarded as the faults and deficiencies of the older books of Samuel and Kings. Among these faults the critics who hold this view point out the "recording, and that without condemna- | the Greek title of these books in the Septuagint vertion, things inconsistent with the Pentateuchal law.' But the instances are mostly made out either by giving a mistaken meaning to the records contained in the books, or by assigning to the Pentateuchal laws an unnatural rigidity of intepretation, or by counting as the interpolations of a later hand the expressed and implied disapprovals of recorded violations of the law which now appear all through the books of Samuel and Kings. It is further said that "The history of the ordinances of worship holds a very small place in the older record. Jerusalem and the temple have not that central place in the book of Kings which they occupied in the minds of the Jewish community after the Exile." But if any one will read in the books of Kings the account of the building and dedication of the temple, the accounts of the reforms under Asa, Joash, Hezekiah, and Josiah, of the descerations or attempted desecrations by Athaliah, Ahaz, Sennacherib, and Manasseh, or of the coronations or burials of the successive Jewish kings, he will easily convince himself that the ordinances of worship and Jerusalem and the temple occupy an important and central place in those books, as really as in the writings produced after the Exile. The difference between the books of Kings and of Chronicles in these particulars is better described by saying that the Chronicles give relatively less prominence to the northern kingdom and its prophets, than by saying that the books of Kings give less prominence to Jerusalem and the temple. The article in the ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA says: "Long before the chronicler wrote, the last spark of prophecy was extinct. But while such men as Ezra and Nehemiah may not be prophets like Isaiah or Samuel, in the sense of having that character more prominently than any other, they yet were prophets, like Moses or David or Daniel, in the sense of being largely endowed with distinctive prophetic gifts. Ezra, the contemporary of the younger years of Nehemiah, appears to have also been, earlier in life, the contemporary of Haggai and Zechariah. Some of the prophets of this group may have been still living when the author of the Chronicles had reached manhood and had begun his historical researches. He must have been a contemporary of the generation of prophets and prophetic men to which Nehemiah and the writer of Malachi belonged. We must therefore regard the books of Chronicles as the final literary product of an age peculiarly rich in prophecy, and not as produced after the cessation of prophetic endowments. The idea, therefore, that the books of Chronicles were written from a priestly point of view to supersede the older historical books, which had been written from the different point of view held by the prophets, is not very decisively favored, even by the internal evidences adduced by its advocates. On the other hand, if we distinguish between the prophetic and the priest ly type of the religion of Israel, the priestly type was that which prevailed from Nehemiah to Jesus; and if the Chronicles had been written in the interest of this type of religion, and to counteract the possible heterodox influence of the older books, then the same motives would certainly have led to their being honored and used in preference to the older. But nothing of this kind happened. The books of Samuel and Kings continued to be the standard sacred history; prophetic lessons for synagogue-reading were selected from them. The books of Chronicles remained in such relative obscurity that it is a matter of dispute whether they are at all recognized in the New Testament. This is what we should expect if the purpose in writing them was mainly historical; that is, if they were written for the specific object of supplementing the other books, of utilizing materials which had been previously neglect ed, and thus of completing the historical Scriptures; but not at all what we should expect on the opposite theory. An item of external evidence not to be despised is sion-Paraleipomenon Basileon Iouda ("Of the Omitted Affairs of the Kings of Judah"). The current tradition, substantially accepted by critics of all schools, is that a group of Israelitish scholars-among whom Ezra and Nehemiah were prominent-who lived dur ing the Exile and after the Return, did some sort of work in collecting, classifying, and supplementing the sacred literature of the Jewish people. The book of Second Maccabees (ii. 13) cites a letter which purports to have been written 164 B. C., in which it is said of Nehemiah, "He, founding a library, gathered together the books concerning the kings, and prophets, and those of David, and epistles of kings concerning holy gifts." Without attaching too much weight to the authority on which this statement rests, it is every way probable that men of the group to which Nehemiah belonged would do precisely what is here ascribed to him. In their work upon the sacred literature of their nation it is a matter of course that they would gather what apparatus they could. It can hardly be otherwise than that their apparatus would include not merely the sacred books which had previously been written, but also some of the sources from which the previous historical books had been compiled. They are likely to have had fragments at least of the old "Chronicles" of the kings of the two kingdoms or of extracts from them. They are likely to have had access to Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian sources of history, such as are being now recovered from the monuments. As they used these in their work upon the older sacred literature, and in bringing the sacred history up to the date of their times, what could be more natural than that they should notice the existence of a considerable amount of material properly available for the writing of sacred history, but omitted from the older books? What more natural than that some one should have been led to utilize this material by writing just such a book as we have before us, repeating enough of the older narrative to show where the new materials belong, and inserting them in their places? According to the other view, the writer of the Chronicles had nothing to add to the Pentateuch, and the period from Moses to David contained little that served his purpose. He therefore contracts the early history into a series of genealogies." But an examination of the genealogies of the first chapters of Chronicles shows that they are not a mere abridgment of the history given in the older biblical books. Moreover, they are fragmentary and imperfect, and are interspersed with anecdotes and short narratives. If we suppose that the compiler of the Chronicles here set down whatever fragments of the ancient Jewish records of early genealogies had been preserved, either using or omitting such parts of this material as were found in the earlier sacred books according as it suited his purpose, and bringing some of the lists down to his own times, we have a supposition which accounts for the phenomena here apparent. In regard to the historical value of the Chronicles the article in the ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA differs widely from the opinions of the extreme destructive critics, who hold that the compiler had no historical materials of value except the older sacred books, and that his testimony to historical facts is therefore worthless. But, notwithstanding this difference, it groundlessly depreciates the historical value of the Chronicles, It affirms that "the book was throughout composed not in purely historical interests, but with a view to inculcate a single practical lesson." But is not the nar rative of the book of Kings arranged for the incul cating of precisely the same practical lesson? Is not the question whether each king "did right in the eyes of Jehovah" the one to which especial attention is called? The author of the Chronicles certainly lived in different conditions of society from the authors of the books of Kings, and his point of view was somewhat affected by it. But it is only in a limited and comparatively unimportant sense that he can be repre- 66 the statements of fact in some of the sources from which he drew, and repeated them as he found them. It is true that the text of the Chronicles has been preserved with less care than that of the books which were more used, and contains a few evident errors of transcription; but this is the extent of what can be proved as to the historical inferiority of these books. In the Chronicles are used the expressions "ships to the literature are the translation of Zöckler's Commentary Literature.-Important and accessible contributions to go to Tarshish," "ships going to Tarshish," " were in Dr. Schaff's edition of Lange, by Dr. James G. Murnot able to go to Tarshish (2 Chron. ix. 21; xx. 36, phy of Belfast (1877), and the little work on the Chron37), where the expression employed in Kings is simply icles published by Prof. Murphy (1880). The introduction ships of Tarshish," the meaning in each case being in Zöckler's Commentary concludes with a full list of works ships for long voyages. on the Chronicles. The expression is further (W. J. B.) varied in the addition of the Vatican Septuagint after 1 Kings xvi. 28, where it is "a ship for Tarshish (eiç) to go to Ophir. It is sometimes assumed that the author of the Chronicles here shows his incompetence as a historian, in that he supposed that Tarshish ships meant ships that were actually bound for Tartessus. But nothing of this kind appears in his language. If 'ship of Tarshish" means "ship for long voyages,' then "Tarshish-going ship" may easily mean the same. "Were not able to go to Tarshish" (especially since the ships were broken before they started) may mean "were not able to make their long voyages." 66 แ In 1 Chron. xxi. 28-30 it is explained that David sacrificed on the threshing-floor of Ornan because the national altar of burnt-offering was then in Gibeon, and was rendered inaccessible by the sword of the angel. This statement is pronounced unhistorical, because it is certain that at the time of David the principle of a single altar was not acknowledged." In proof of this is cited 1 Kings iii. 2-4 to the effect that Gibeon appears only as the chief of many highplaces. This chosen instance admirably represents volumes of argument that have been adduced for similar purposes. In the three verses the author of the Kings records the fact that Solomon and the people sacrificed in various high-places. But he regards it as a strange fact, needing explanation, for he explains it by saying, "because a house to the name of Jehovah was not yet built." Moreover, he regards the sacrificing at different places, even with this explanation of it, as illegitimate, and protests against it twice in the three verses: "only the people sacrificed,' only he sacrificed.' The author of Kings is as distinct as the author of Chronicles in acknowledging "the principle of a single altar," and in holding that the contemporaries of Solomon ought to have acknowledged it. When the author of Chronicles assumes that David acknowledged it, he assumes something which is contradicted by no known facts, and in regard to which he, living twenty-two centuries nearer than our modern critics to the events, and having in his possession sources of evidence which they have not, is a better qualified witness than they. 99 66 If speeches like those of Abijah in 2 Chron. xiii. are mere literary devices, putting the author's words into the mouth of his hero, the statements thus uttered may none the less be historical truth. In this instance the assertions made by Abijah as to the tender age of Rehoboam when he began to reign present decided difficulties. They agree with the statement made in the Greek addition after 1 Kings xii. 24, that Rehoboam began to reign at the age of sixteen, but apparently contradict the statement of all the copies of both Kings and Chronicles, that he was forty-one at his accession. If we could prove that the unsettled condition of things after the death of Solomon lasted twenty-five years before the simultaneous accession of Jeroboam and Rehoboam, that would reconcile these statements. Very likely we should find them consistent if we had a full account of all the events of those times. Meanwhile, we may rest assured that if the author of Chronicles had invented these facts to put into the mouth of Abijah, he would have invented them free from such difficulties. Evidently, he found CHRONOGRAPH ("time-recorder "), an astronomical instrument invented in America in 1848 by Dr. J. Locke, though Prof. O. M. Mitchell, Joseph Saxton, and Sears C. Walker had much to do both with its invention and subsequent improvement. Its general introduction has inaugurated a new era in observational and instrumental astronomy. So accurate and permanent are its records, and so easily and minutely are they made, that it has become an indispensable instrument in every well-equipped observatory. It is of several varieties, and is chiefly used for the registration by electricity of the time of transit of any heavenly body across the meridian, instead of by the eye-and-ear method, as it is called, which required the observer's powers of attention to be distracted beyond what they are able to bear. Before the introduction of this method (usually called the chronographic or magnetic method) the usual plan for noting the time of any celestial phenomenon was for the observer to listen to the beats of his sidereal clock; to keep count of the minutes, and estimate the space passed over by the object during the interval between the beats; to mentally divide this space into tenths, and record in his note-book the minutes, seconds, and tenths, meanwhile counting the clock-beats that not one be lost. All this must be repeated at the bisection of the object with each of the several wires (spider-lines) in the field of view of his telescope, sometimes as many as ten or more being employed. Even by this wearisome method skilled observers, after years of practice, have been able to record the time of transits to within one-tenth of a second, though it was more frequently to one-fifth of a second. But by the new plan an inexperienced person will, by a single night's practice, record them to one one-hundreth of a second. The chronographic, which has almost entirely superseded the old "eye-and-ear method," relieves the observer of all anxiety regarding the time, the clock-beats, and the making of the record in his note-book, and enables him to give his undivided attention to the observation of the transits, which, under the other method with its attendant difficulties, he was, to a certain extent, prevented from doing. The most popular form of chronograph in use consists of a metallic cylinder some twenty or more inches in length and from eight to ten inches in diameter, made to revolve on an axis by a driving clock regulated to cause the cylinder to make exactly one revolution per minute. Around the cylinder is wrapped a sheet of blank paper which revolves with it, and upon which the records are made, the sidereal clock of the observatory recording its own time, and the observer his observations. Three things are rigorously demanded in the sucessful working of a chronograph-viz., 1st, that the cylinder or disk (depending on which variety is used) be made to revolve uniformly once in a sidereal minute; 2d, that the standard clock makes an unfailing record on the paper once in a sidereal second; and, 3d, that the observer at the telescope shall have the power of electrically making a signal on the paper at the instant of the passage of any object across each of the several wires of his telescope. It is possible to quite perfectly accomplish the second and third conditions, but for the first no mechanical device has as yet been invented that will cause a cylinder to revolve with mathematical ex actness for any great length of time. The deviations are, however, too slight to vitiate the results to any appreciable amount. The pen (called the time-pen) is electrically connected by a wire directly or indirectly to the pendulum of the sidereal clock, which causes tracings of uniform length to be made on the revolving paper. Close to the time-pen is another called the observing-pen, which is electrically connected by a wire with a signal key within easy reach of the observer, who at every transit of an object makes the connection with his galvanic battery by tapping on the key, which instantaneously imprints a dot close to that made every second by the time-pen, which can be read and copied at leisure, and preserved and re-examined at any future time if necessary. It is difficult to over-estimate the advantages which this invention has conferred upon astronomy, for it may be safely assumed that the value of a night's work with a transit instrument by the chronographic is about ten times as great as by the former method. For facts regarding the priority of this invention see the two letters of Sears C. Walker to Prof. A. D. Bache (superintendent of Coast Survey), dated Dec. 15, 1848, printed as a public document by Congress in Jan., 1849. A printing chronograph has been invented by Prof. G. W. Hough, and for three years was constantly and successfully used by him while director of the Dudley Observatory at Albany, N. Y. It possesses very decided advantages over all other forms of chronograph, the principal one being that no measuring up of the blanks, Both pens are attached to a small carriage which as in the recording chronograph, is required, as the is slowly propelled lengthwise along the cylinder by a observation signals are printed in Roman characters long revolving screw, so that the chronographic charac-by type-wheels controlled by the standard clock. The ters are recorded spirally around the cylinder. When probable error for a single impression is only 0013 the paper is filled a moment suffices to remove it and of a second, or the same as in other forms. The insubstitute another. Two or three blanks are sufficient strument, being somewhat complex in its mechanical for a night's constant work. construction, cannot be intelligently described here, but a detailed description may be found in vol. vii. p. 66 of the Transactions of the Albany Institute. A straight line drawn on the sheet lengthwise of the cylinder will indicate the commencement of the minutes, or, as is often done, a time-signal may be omitted at the end of the minutes by removing one of the sixty teeth in the escapement-wheel of the clock, which breaks the electric circuit. In some forms but a single pen is used, the clock marking signals that correspond to one second of time in length, and the observer using the same pen to record his observations. There is no difficulty in distinguishing the two sets of signals. As far as theory is concerned, the instruments can be miles away from the observatory, and the clock and chronograph equally as far from each other. The chronograph affords the easiest and most exact method known for determining the difference of longitude between two places connected by telegraph. Without going into the refinement of all the details, the process is briefly as follows: Suppose it be required to ascertain the difference of longitude between the Naval Observatory at Washington and the Dearborn Observatory at Chicago. All that is necessary is for the observer in the latter city to connect his chronograph with the sidereal clock in Washington by means of the telegraph-line between the two cities. The beats of the Washington clock are thereby recorded on the Chicago chronograph. The Washington observer signals the transit of a star across the wires in the field of view of his transit instrument, which are instantly recorded on the chronograph at Chicago. While the star is apparently moving towards the meridian of the last-named place the Washington clock is recording its own beats at Chicago, whose observer, when the same star passes the wires in his transit instrument, makes the record not only on his own, but likewise on the chronograph at Washington. The simple process of measuring up his chronograph sheet is all that is necessary to ascertain how much time has elapsed between the two records, which is the same thing as the difference of longitude between the two observatories. It must be remembered that by this process the star's right ascension and declination are not necessary to be known by either observer; all that is required being to measure the flow of time, which, resulting from the earth's rotation, is uniform for all the stars. If the clock at Washington has no rate, and the chronograph cylinder revolve with undeviating accuracy, and the exact time of the passage of the electricity through the wires be known, a single trial will give the difference of longitude to within the one onehundredth of a second of time. One source of error in recording transits by the eyeand-ear method is the imperfection of the ear as an organ in associating its sensations with those of sight. It has been computed that the precision of the associations of sight and touch is to that of sight and hearing as 17 to 10. For descriptions of the different methods invented for breaking the electric circuit by a standard clock, and also the improvements made by Mr. Saxton and Profs. Mitchell and Walker, and for engraved sample of a chronographic recconnected with the subject, see Recent Progress of Astronomy, ord, together with many other facts directly and indirectly by Prof. Elias Loomis, published in 1849. For a cut of the Greenwich chronograph, with description, see Lockyer's Star-gazing, pp. 260–266. (L. S.) CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. The following is See Vol. V. a continuation of the Table in the ENCYp. 625 Am. CLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA, which closes with ed. (p. 720 the year 1875. Edin. ed.). 1876. Jan. 1. The imperial bank of Germany opened. March 7. Jules Grévy elected president of French Chamber of Deputies; Prince of Wales returns to England from his visit to India. May 1. Queen Victoria proclaimed empress of India; 30. Abdul-Aziz, sultan of Turkey, deposed; Murad V. succeeds. July 1. Death of Michael Bakunin, founder of the Nihilists (born 1814); 2. Servians invade Turkey, but, unaided, are unsuccessful. Aug. 12. Mr. Disraeli created earl of Beaconsfield; Murad V., sultan of Turkey, deposed on ground of insanity Abdul-Hamid II. becomes sultan. Nov. 6. Death of Cardinal Antonelli (born 1806). Dec. 23. New constitution proclaimed in Turkey, giving Christians political equality with Mohammedans. American.-Jan. 1. Centennial year of American Independence opened with special demonstration at Philadelphia; 15. Telephone invented by Prof. Graham Bell, of Boston. Feb. 17. Death of Rev. Dr. Horace Bushnell, Congregational theologian (born 1802). March 2. W. W. Belknap, secretary of war, impeached by Congress. April. Headquarters of the United States army transferred from St. Louis to Washington; 17. Death of Dr O. A. Brownson, Roman Catholic philosopher (born 1803) May 10. Centennial Exhibition opened at Philadelphia. June 16. Republican National Convention at Cincinnati nominates Gov. R. B. Hayes of Ohio for President, and W. A. Wheeler of New York for Vice-President; 25. Massacre of Gen. G. A. Custer and his troops by Indians at Little Big Horn River; 29. Democratic National Convention at St. Louis nominates S. J. Tilden of New York for President, and T. A. Hendricks of Indiana for Vice-President. July 4. Centennial anniversary of American Independence celebrated. Aug. 1. Colorado declared a State by President's proclamation, its Constitution having been ratified July 1; 20. Death of M. C. Kerr, speaker of the United States House of Representatives (born 1827). Nov. 10. Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia closed; 11. Presidential election. Popular vote: Democratio 4,284,885, Republican 4,033,950; Electoral vote: Tilden 184, Hayes 185; but there were disputes as to| the result in South Carolina, Louisiana, and Florida. Dec. 4. Second session of the Forty-fifth Congress; S. J. Randall of Pennsylvania chosen speaker. 1877.-Jan. 15. The Great Powers present to Turkey their ultimatum on its affairs. March 1. Treaty of peace between Turkey and Servia. April 10. Turkey rejects the protocol of the Great Powers, signed at London March 31; 12. British troops annex the Transvaal_republic; 16. Roumania makes a convention with Russia; 24. Russia declares war on Turkey. May 19. French cabinet (monarchical) formed under duc de Broglie, and the Chambers prorogued, 363 members protesting. June 21. Russians cross the Danube; 25. French Assembly dissolved. July 20. First battle of Plevna (second, July 30; third, Sept. 11). August. Convention between England and Egypt for suppression of the slave trade; H. M. Stanley reaches the west coast of Africa, having sailed down the Congo; Aug. 19-Sept. 17. Defence of Shipka Pass in the Balkan Mountains. Sept. 3. Death of Adolphe Thiers, French statesman (born 1797). Oct. 14. French elections result in a decided republican victory. Nov. 17. Kars, in Armenia, captured by the Russian general Melikoff. Dec. 10. Plevna taken by Russians under Gen. Totleben after a gallant defence since July 19 by Osman Pasha; 14. French cabinet (republican) formed under Dufaure. American. Jan. 30. Congress chooses an electoral tribunal of fifteen to settle points in dispute as to Presidential election. March 2. Election of R. B. Hayes as President confirmed by Congress. April 10. United States troops withdrawn from South Carolina State-house, and the Democratic State government recognized as valid; troops also ordered to be withdrawn from Alaska; 19. Presidential commission visiting New Orleans report a valid legislature and State government in Louisiana; 24. United States troops withdrawn from Louisiana Capitol. May 29. Death of J. Lothrop Motley, historian and diplomatist, in London (born 1820). June 15. Canadian and United States Fishery Commission meet at Halifax. July. Gen. O. O. Howard's campaign against the Indians in Idaho 16. Serious strike of railroad employés commenced at Baltimore: it affected especially the Baltimore and Ohio and the Pennsylvania Railroads; 22. Pennsylvania Railroad dépôt at Pittsburg burned by strikers; militia ordered out. Aug. 4. Railroad strike comes to an end; 16. Centennial of the battle of Bennington celebrated; 29. Death of Brigham Young, president of the Mormons (born 1801); his authority is assumed by the Twelve Apostles." Oct. 15. Fortyfifth Congress met in special session; S. J. Randall speaker of the House; opposition to the administration developed in the Senate. Nov. 23. Halifax Fishery Commission awards $5,000,000 damages to Canada. 11. Austria releases Germany from the obligation, by treaty of 1866, to surrender the Danish part of Schles wig to Denmark; 12. Death of Bishop Dupanloup, French theologian (born 1802); 24. Death of Cardinal Paul Cullen, Irish theologian (born 1802). Nov. 21. British army enters Afghanistan. American.-Feb. 16. Bland's Silver bill passed over the President's veto. April 12. President Hayes appoints a court of inquiry in case of Gen. Fitz-John Porter. May 13. Death of Prof. Joseph Henry, scientist (born 1798). June 12. Death of William Cullen Bryant, poet and journalist (born 1794); 19. Death of Rev. Charles Hodge, D. D., Presbyterian theologian (born 1798). July 11. President Hayes removes Chester A. Arthur from collectorship of customs at New-York, and appoints Gen. E. A. Merritt his successor. August-October. Yellow fever rages along the Mississippi. Oct. 14. Marquis of Lorne appointed governor-general of Canada. Nov. 23. American minister in London paid the Halifax fishery award ($5,000,000) with protest. Dec. 17. Gold sold at par with legal-tender notes in New York for the first time since Jan. 13, 1862; 19. Death of Bayard Taylor, author and American minister to Berlin (born 1824). 1879.-Jan. 10. Death of Marshal Espartero, Spanish statesman (born 1793); 22. Battle of Isandlana, in South Africa; Lord Chelmsford defeated by the Zulus; 30. Marshal MacMahon resigns as president of France, and Jules Grévy is elected his successor; Gambetta is elected president of the Chamber of Depu ties. Feb. 4. French cabinet formed under M. Waddington; 21. Death of Shere Ali, ameer of Afghanistan; his son, Yakub Khan, succeeds. April 28. Liberal Constitution adopted in Bulgaria; Alexander of Battenberg chosen prince. May 5. Death of Isaac Butt, founder of the Irish Home-Rule party (born 1813); 15. Death of Jacob Staempfli, formerly president of Switzerland (born 1820); 26. Treaty of Gundamak between England and Afghanistan, establishing "scientific frontier." June 1. Prince Louis Napoleon slain by Zulus (born 1856); 20. French Assembly and Senate order the seat of government removed from Versailles to Paris; 26. Ismail, khedive of Egypt, abdicated in favor of his son Tewfik. July 4. Lord Chelmsford defeats the Zulus under Cetewayo at Ulundi; 12. Germany adopts Prince Bismarck's Protective Tariff bill; 19. Baron Nordenskjöld sailed through_Behring Strait, having accomplished the North-east Passage; 20. Jules Ferry's Education bill (anti-clerical) passed. Aug. 3. Russians evacuate Bulgaria; 27. Death of Sir Rowland Hill, the promoter of cheap postage (born 1795); 28. Cetewayo, king of the Zulus, captured by the British. Sept. 3. Massacre of English at Cabul. Oct. 8. Andrassy, prime minister of Austria, resigned; 13. English general Roberts enters Cabul and avenges the massacre. Nov. 10. Paris International Exposition closed; Prussian legislature authorizes the government to purchase private railroads. Dec. 21. M. Waddington's cabinet resigns; M. de Freycinet succeeds. 26. Conflagration in Tokio, Japan, destroys 15,000 houses; 28. Railroad bridge over the Frith of Tay, Scotland, blown down and train engulfed. 1878.-Jan. 9. Death of Victor Emmanuel II., king of Italy (born 1820); his son Humbert succeeds; 31. Cessation of hostilities between Russia and Turkey. Feb. 7. Death of Pope Pius IX. (born 1792; became pope 1846); 20. Cardinal Vincenzo Pecci elected American.-Jan. 11. Death of Caleb Cushing, lawpope, assuming the name of Leo XIII. March 3. yer and diplomatist (born 1800); 26. Arrears of Pope Leo XIII. crowned; Treaty of San Stefano Pension bill becomes a law. March 1. Bill to restrict concluded between Russia and Turkey; 28. Lord Chinese immigration vetoed; 15. Protective tariff Derby resigns as foreign secretary in the English adopted in Canada; 18. Forty-sixth Congress met in cabinet. May 1. International Exposition opened in extra session; S. J. Randall of Pennsylvania chosen Paris; 28. Death of Earl Russell, English_statesman speaker of the House; 29. Death of Dr. George B. (born 1792). June 12. Death of George V. ex-king Wood, medical author (born 1797). March-April. of Hanover; his son, Ernest Augustus, claims the "Exodus of negroes from the Southern States kingdom. July 13. Berlin congress of representatives to the West. April 6. Chili declares war against from Turkey and the six Great Powers divides Turkey| Peru and Bolivia; 21. Death of Maj.-Gen. John and rearranges her affairs; 29. Austrian army enters A. Dix (born 1798). May 24. Death of William Bosnia, and the occupation is completed Oct. 4. Aug. Lloyd Garrison, the abolitionist (born 1804). July 1. 21. Independence of Servia proclaimed. Monetary Congress adjourned. Great difficulty had been exconference at Paris favors bi-metallism. Oct. 2. Fail-perienced in passing the Appropriation bills, as Congress ure of City of Glasgow Bank; liabilities, £10,000,000; insisted on attaching conditions on account of which the |