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President had vetoed successive bills. The Jeannette Arctic exploring expedition sailed from San Francisco. Sept. 26. Business part of Deadwood, Montana, burned. Oct. 13. Death of Henry C. Carey, political economist (born 1793); 17. Death of W. R. Whittingham, Episcopal bishop of Maryland (born 1805). Nov. 1. Death of Zachariah Chandler, United States Senator from Michigan (born 1813); 4. Elections in eleven States, generally favorable to the Republicans. Dec. 16. Gen. William Mahone elected United States Senator (1881-87) from Virginia as a Readjuster.

slain by boers at Majuba. March 13. Czar Alexander II. of Russia assassinated; his son, Alexander III., succeeded; 17. Irish Arms bill became a law; 24. British Government recognized the independence of the Transvaal republic; 26. Prince Charles proclaimed king of Roumania; Anti-Jewish riots at Kiev and other places in Russia. April 3. Earthquake in the island of Scio; 7000 lives lost; 19. Death of earl of Beaconsfield (born 1804); Lord Salisbury becomes the leader of the Conservative party in England; 25. French army invaded Tunis. May 12. French army having surrounded the city of Tunis, the Bey signed a treaty with France; liberal constitution of Bulgaria abolished by the king. June 14. Greece reluctantly ratifies a treaty with Turkey, annexing Thessaly and Southern Epirus; 27. Death of Dufaure, French

1880.-Jan. 20. Death of Jules Favre, French republican statesman (born 1809). Feb. 17. Attempt to assassinate Czar Alexander II. at the Winter Palace; 29. St. Gothard tunnel pierced through after eight years' labor. March 30. President Grévy orders the French Jesuits to disband. April 28. Mr. W. E. Glad-statesman (born 1798). July 13. Riot at Rome at the stone prime minister of England a second time. June removal of the body of Pope Pius IX. from St. Peter's 16. Berlin conference of the Great Powers on the to the special tomb in the church of St. Laurence; 18. boundary of Greece and Turkey; 30. Jesuits expelled Death of Rev. A. P. Stanley, dean of Westminster from their establishments in France. July 1. British (born 1815). Aug. 22. Irish Land Law receives the House of Commons allows Charles Bradlaugh, an royal sanction; it first passed the House of Commons atheist, to take his seat without taking the oath; July 29, but was afterward amended. Sept. 9. The 11. French Government proclaims amnesty to the Egyptian army, led by Arabi Bey, compel the khedive communists; 18. Tewfik, khedive of Egypt, signs the to form a national cabinet under Sherif Pacha. Oct. liquidation law, required by the bankruptcy of the 13. Charles S. Parnell, leader of the Irish Home Rule country; 22. British Government recognized Abdur-party, imprisoned in Dublin; 20. The lord-lieutenant rahman Khan as ameer of Afghanistan, and withdrew of Ireland prohibits Land League meetings. Nov. 9. its army from Cabul, but hostilities were renewed under Jules Ferry resigns his ministry; Gambetta succeeds, Ayoob Khan, July 27. Aug. 11. Gambetta's speech taking the portfolio of foreign affairs. Dec. 3. Italian at the naval review at Cherbourg excited apprehension Reform bill passed, granting votes to all who can read of war with Germany. Sept. 1. British general Rob- and write; 15. Turkey makes a settlement with its erts defeated Ayoob Khan at Candahar; Prince foreign bondholders; 25. Serious outbreak against the Bismarck takes the ministry of commerce and indus- Jews in Warsaw. try; 19. De Freycinet resigns as president of the French cabinet; Jules Ferry succeeds Sept. 22. Oct. 15. Celebration of the completion of the cathedral of Cologne (commenced 1248); 24. Captain Boycott compelled to leave Ireland by opposition of the people. Nov. Anti-Semitic agitation in Germany, especially in Berlin; 20. Death of Sir Alexander Cockburn, lord chief-justice (born 1802); 24. Dulcigno captured from Albanians by Dervish Pasha; 27. Dulcigno surrendered to Montenegro, which has thus a second seaport. Dec. 30,000 troops gathered in Ireland to repress the Land League agitation; 22. Death of Mrs. Cross ("George Eliot "), novelist (born 1820).

American.-Jan. 3. Death of Gilbert Haven, Methodist bishop (born 1821). May 9. Death of George Brown, Canadian statesman (born 1818); 27. Chilians defeated Peruvians and Bolivians at Tacna; Bolivia then abandoned the war. June 2-8. Republican National Convention at Chicago nominated Gen. J. A. Garfield of Ohio for President, and Chester A. Arthur of New York for Vice-President; 13. Death of ex-Senator J. A. Bayard of Delaware (born 1799); 23. Death of Dr. Constantine Hering, founder of homoeopathy in the United States (born 1800); 24. Democratic National Convention at Cincinnati nominated Gen. W. S. Hancock of Pennsylvania for President, and W. H. English of Indiana for VicePresident. Sept. Convention of the Reformed churches (Presbyterian) in Philadelphia. Nov. 2. Presidential election Popular vote, Garfield 4,439,415; Hancock 4,436,014; electoral vote, Garfield, 213; Hancock, 156; 8. Death of Col. E. L. Drake, who drilled the first oilwell in Pennsylvania; 11. Death of Lucretia Mott, Quaker philanthropist (born 1793); 17. New treaty concluded between United States and China, restricting immigration.

1881.-Jan. 21. Treaty between Russia and China defining their territory in Central Asia ratified at St. Petersburg. Feb. 3. Clôture adopted in the British House of Commons; 4. Death of E. Drouyn de Lhuys, French statesman (born 1807); 5. Death of Thomas Carlyle, philosopher and historian (born 1795); 25. British House of Commons passes the Irish Protection bill; 27. British general Sir G. Colley defeated and

American.-Jan. 17. Chilian army enters Lima. February-March. Great floods along the Ohio and Mississippi. March 3. Apportionment of House of Representatives fixed by Congress, allowing 319 members; 4. President Garfield's inauguration. April 18. Law passed restricting Chinese immigration for ten years. May 5. New treaty with China ratified by the Senate; 16. Roscoe Conkling resigns his seat in the United State Senate, but seeks re-election by the New York legislature. June 11. Arctic exploring steamer Jeannette crushed in the ice. July 2. President Garfield shot by C. J. Guiteau in Washington; 16. E. G. Lapham and Warner Miller elected United States Senators from New York to succeed Roscoe Conkling and Thomas C. Platt. Sept. 4. Immense forest fires in Michigan, 300 lives lost; 19. Death of President Garfield at Elberon, N. J. (born 1831); 20. President Arthur takes the oath of office privately, and again formally Sept. 22. Oct. 10. United States Senate meets in special session; 19. Centennial celebration of the battle of Yorktown, Va. Dec. 3. W. H. Trescott sent by the United States Government to induce peace between Peru and_Chili; 5. Forty-seventh Congress assembled; Gen. J. Warren Keifer of Ohio elected speaker of the House.

1882. Jan. 1. St. Gothard tunnel opened to traffic; 26. Gambetta resigns his ministry; De Freycinet succeeds Jan. 30. Feb. 8. Death of Berthold Auerbach, German novelist, at Cannes, France (born 1810). March 6. Servia becomes a kingdom, Prince Milan II. taking the title of King Milan I. May 6. Assassination of Lord Frederick Cavendish, secretary of state for Ireland, and Thomas Burke, assistant secretary, in Phoenix Park, Dublin; 25. The representatives of France and England in Egypt demand the removal of Arabi Bey. June 2. Death of Garibaldi, Italian patriot, at Caprera (born 1807); 11. Several Europeans slain at Alexandria; the rest seek safety on ships in the harbor; 18. Treaties between Austria-Hungary and Servia ratified. July 7. Death of Russian Gen. M. D. Skobeleff (born 1843); 8. France refuses to take part in the English intervention in Egypt; 11. British fleet bombards Alexandria; 12. Irish Repression bill becomes a law; 15. John Bright resigns from the British ministry on account of its foreign policy; 21. Gen. Wolseley

placed in command of the British expedition to Egypt. | schakoff, Russian prime minister (born 1798); 16. Aug. 1. Celebration of the 500th anniversary of the annexation of Trieste to Austria; Industrial Exposition opened; 2. Arabi Pacha proclaims the khedive of Egypt a traitor and himself the true representative of the sultan; 15. Cetywayo, king of the Zulus, in London, allowed to return to Africa; 17. prisoner tion in a and massacre in the royal palace, the king escaping; 20. The Suez Canal seized by the British troops. Sept. 1. In Russia, courses of medicine closed to women; 9. Arabi Pacha attacks the English at Kassasin, but is repulsed; 11. AntiSemitic congress at Dresden; Assembly of German Catholics at Frankfort-on-the-Main; Arabi Pacha defeated at Tel-el-Kebir, and British enter Cairo; 16. Death of Rev. Dr. E. B. Pusey, English theologian (born 1800); 18. Inundation on the Upper Danube; 25. Khedive of Egypt restored to power in Cairo. Oct. 17. Irish National conference at Dublin under C. S. Parnell; 31. Earl Dufferin sent to Egypt to assist in restoring order. Nov. 26. French Chambers sanction De Brazza's acquisition of territory on the Congo River; 27. Great floods along the Rhine, which continued during December. Dec. 3. Death of Rt. Rev. A. C. Tait, archbishop of Canterbury (born 1811); Arabi Pacha, condemned by court-martial, is banished to Ceylon 6. Death of Louis Blanc, French historian and socialist (born 1813); 16. Changes in the British cabinet, H. C. E. Childers becoming chancellor of the exchequer; 27. In Austria, celebration of the 600th anniversary of the House of Hapsburg; 31. Gen. Wood's plan for reorganizing the Egyptian army is accepted.

American-Jan. 4. Death of Prof. J. W. Draper, scientist and historian, in New York (born 1811). March. Great immigration of Jews from Russia; Report made to the Government that 85,000 persons have been rendered destitute by the Mississippi floods; 24. Death of Henry W. Longfellow, poet, at Cambridge, Mass. (born 1807). April 27. Death of Ralph Waldo Emerson, philosopher, at Concord, Mass. (born 1803). May 8. Bill to restrict Chinese immigration for ten years becomes a law. June 27. Constitutional amendment prohibiting liquor adopted by the people of Iowa; 30. Guiteau, assassin of President Garfield, hanged. Aug. 1. National Mining Exhibition opened at Denver; 2. River and Harbor Appropriation bill passed over the President's veto. August-October. Tariff commission visits various parts of the country. Oct. 24. Bicentennial anniversary of William Penn's landing celebrated in Philadelphia. Nov. 7. State elections highly favorable to the Democratic party, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Massachusetts being carried by them; 199 Democrats and 127 Republicans elected to Congress; 13 Democratic governors elected. Dec. 11. Death of Sir Hugh Allan of Montreal, in Edinburgh (born 1810). Business portion of Kingston, Jamaica, destroyed by fire.

Death of Carl Marx, German socialist, founder of the International Society of Workingmen (born 1818). April 3. Congress of German socialists at Copenhagen; Von Bennigsen, German liberal leader, retires from public life; 10. Explosives act, passed in consequence of frequency of dynamite outrages in Great Britain, becomes law; 16. French vessels bombard ports in north-west of Madagascar; 19. Specie payment resumed in Italy. May. Pope Leo XIII. in a letter to the Irish bishops opposes the Parnell fund; 25. French defeated at Hanoi in Tonquin by the "Black Flags ;" 26. Death of Abd-el-Kader, Arab general, at Damascus (born 1805); 27. Coronation of Czar Alexander III. at Moscow in the Kremlin cathedral; 29. James Carey, Irish informer, killed by O'Donnell at sea off the coast of South Africa. June 13. French Admiral Pierre bombards and captures Tamatave, in Madagascar; 16. British commission condemns project of under-sea tunnel from Dover to Calais; 20. Death_of Bishop J. W. Colenso of Natal (born 1813); 28. British House of Lords rejects bill permitting marriage with a deceased wife's sister; 30. Prussian Landstag virtually repeals the May laws of 1873, which had been so obnoxious to the Catholics. July 28. Earthquake at Ischia, an Italian island, destroys Casamicciola; 3000 lives lost. Aug. 24. Death of Henri, comte de Chambord, head of the French Bourbons (born 1820); Comte de Paris, of the Orleans branch, succeeds to his claim on the throne of France; 25. French capture Hue, capital of Anam; 26. Great volcanic eruptions near Java; Mount Krakatoa submerged; immense loss of life and property. Sept. 1. French defeat the Black Flags near Hanoi, Anam; 3. Death of Ivan Tourguéneff, Russian novelist, at Bongival, France (born 1818); 11. Death of Henri Conscience, Flemish novelist, at Paris (born 1813); 28. Colossal statue of Germania, representing the new German empire, unveiled in the Niederwald. Oct. 20. Typhoon destroys large part of Manilla, in Philippine Islands. Nov. 10. Celebration of the 400th anniversary of the birth of Martin Luther, the German Reformer; Egyptian army under Hicks Pasha totally defeated by El-Mahdi in Soudan.

American.-Jan. 4. Gen. B. F. Butler installed as governor of Massachusetts; 20. Gen. Iglesias appointed president of Peru by a Congress at Catamarca with a view to peace with Chili. Feb. 4. Great floods along the Ohio River; Congress ordered the unexpended balance of the Japanese indemnity fund to be returned to Japan. March 3. G. F. Edmunds of Vermont chosen president of the United States Senate; 4. Death of Alexander H. Stephens, governor of Georgia (born 1811); 27. Insurrection in Hayti. April 4. Death of Peter Cooper, philanthropist (born 1791); 27. Irish Nationalist societies of America reorganize in Philadelphia, electing A. M. Sullivan of Chicago president. May 16. Treaty of peace concluded between Chili and Peru; 24. New York and Brooklyn bridge formally 1883. Jan. 1. Death of Gambetta (born 1838); 5. opened. June. Great floods in the Missouri and MisDeath of Gen. A. Chanzy (born 1823); 11. The foreign sissippi Valleys; Gen. G. Crook crosses the Mexican control in Egypt abolished, France protesting; 16. boundary and destroys Apache camps. July 1. RePrince Jerome Napoleon ("Plon-Plon") imprisoned duced tariff goes into effect; internal taxes abolished for a futile manifesto; 28. Duclerc resigns the premier- except on tobacco and spirituous liquors; 4. Death of ship of France, and is succeeded by M. Fallières. Archbishop J. B. Purcell of Cincinnati (born 1800); Feb. 5. Mr. Colvin is made financial adviser of the 16. Civil Service Reform goes into effect under a comEgyptian Government; 8. Danubian conference at mission, D. B. Eaton chairman; 19. Strike of 12,000 London enlarges the jurisdiction of the Danubian com- telegraph-operators of the Western Union Company; mission; 12. Coronation of King Kalakaua at Hono- 25. Centennial anniversary of the birth of Gen. Simon lulu, Sandwich Island; Irish assassins of Lord Fred- Bolivar, the South American Liberator. Aug. 1. erick Cavendish and Mr. Burke convicted on informa- Louisville Exposition opened by President Arthur. tion of Carey, an accomplice; 13. Death of Richard Sept. 19. Death of J. S. Black, jurist (born 1810). Wagner, German composer of operas (born 1813); 16. Oct. 1. Postage on letters reduced to two cents on each In Russia, a commission appointed to investigate the half ounce; Ohio State elections give a Democratic Jewish question; 18. Fallières resigns the premiership majority of 10,000; Prohibition amendment defeated of France, and is succeeded by Jules Ferry. March 7. by 70,000 majority; 23. Lord Lansdowne installed as Death of Rev. J. R. Green, English historian, at governor-general of Canada. Nov. 1. Lieut.-Gen. P. Mentone, Italy (born 1837); 10. Death of Comon- H. Sheridan succeeds Gen. W. T. Sherman (retired) in dourus, Greck statesman; 11. Death of Prince Gort-command of the United States army; 10. Elections give

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It is generally believed that, notwithstanding the proverbial gardening skill of the Chinese and the Japanese, European florists have far exceeded them in the improvement of the chrysanthemum during the half century they have given to the task. But perhaps we have not learned exactly what the Asiatics have done for it. Kæmpher, who wrote of Japan in 1712, notes that under the name of "kik everywhere under culture in that country. In China it must have been grown for ages, as not only does it afford a general type of architectural ornament, but seems to have a place in the ancient history of this country. One of the national honors is the "Order of the Chrysanthemum. It is one of the badges of the Japanese empire. In Corea the annual Chrysanthemum festival is one of the greatest national holidays. The Coreans have brought chrysanthemum culture to great perfection.

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decided Republican majorities in the Northern States; 10. Centennial of Evacuation Day observed in New York; 18. New railway_time standard adopted in United States. Dec. 3. Forty-eighth Congress meets; J. G. Carlisle of Kentucky elected speaker of House. CHRYSANTHEMUM (“Golden Flower'), a popular name for certain plants of the order Compositæ, species of which have been introduced from China and Japan during comparatively recent times, the date in England being fixed at 1764. The name is employed by Dioscorides when referring to what is now known as Chrysanthemum coronarium, a brightyellow species which abounds along paths and by roadsides in Greece. The Chinese plant was referred to Matricaria by Sherard, Ray, and others in the early part of the last century, who were familiar with dried specimens received by way of the East Indies. and it was ultimately referred to the genus Chrysanthemum by Linnæus as C. Indicum. Later botanists, however, The chrysanthemum is said also to be the national refer it to the genus Pyrethrum, which differs from flower of Siam. (T. M.) Chrysanthemum in having a membranous border to CHUCK-WILLS-WIDOW (onomat.), a fissirostral the angular, wingless achenes. There appears also bird of the family Caprimulgida; the Antrostomus to have been some misapprehension in regard to the carolinensis, closely related to the whippoorwill (4. specific name. Mr. Sabine, an English botanist, vociferous), inhabiting the South Atlantic and Gulf pointed out in 1823 that among cultivated chrysanthe- States. It is the largest species of the genus, about mums there were evidently two species. These are 12 inches long; the pointed wings, 8 or 9; the rounded known to florists now as the "large-flowered" class, tail, about 6; and distinguished from its congeners in and the "small," or 66 pompons. The Linnæan the fact that the long bristles which fringe the deeplyplant was believed to be the latter, C. Indicum, while cleft mouth are furnished with lateral filaments. The Mr. Sabine named the large-flowered species C. Sinense. feet are extremely short and weak, as in all of the Though cultivated at the Chelsea Gardens in England genus; the middle claw is pectinate, and the phain 1764, and in the Low Countries as early as 1688 (if langes of the digits have the abnormal numerical we may credit Breyne), it was not till plants were in- ratio (2, 3, 3, 3 for first to fourth) of other Caprimul troduced to France by M. Blanchard of Marseilles in gina; the head is broad and flat; the horny part of 1789 that modern cultivation properly began. He had the beak is extremely small in comparison with the three shades of color. Few persons, however, seemed depth of fission of the mandibles. The plumage is to note that the plant produced perfect seeds under remarkably soft and lax, and singularly variegated with culture, and hence new varieties seldom appeared. But black, brown, tawny, and fulvous, the brighter of these about 1846 attention to raising seedlings became general, tints giving the prevailing tone; there is a white bar on till, in 1860, we find Salter, a florist, had 750 varieties, the throat, and several lateral tail-feathers are tipped 250 of these being of the Pyrethrum Indicum, or with white on the male. It is nocturnal in its activpompons, class. It is believed that up to the pres-ities, and in all respects its habits are similar to those ent time at least 1500 varieties have been raised and of the better-known whippoorwill; the name, like that named by different cultivators. The small-flowered of the latter bird, comes of the attempt to express its kind, P. Indicum, was reintroduced from China in 1846 uncouth cries in a word. (E. C.) by Mr. Robert Fortune, under the name of the CHURCH. In the New Testament ecclesia, signiChusan daisy.' fying "convocation," is the only single word p. 663 Am. used for church. It was the name given ed. (p. 758 to the democratic governmental assembly of Edin. ed.). the citizens of Athens, duly convoked by proper officers, and possessing all political power, including even juridical functions. The word is used by the evangelists and apostles with several applicationssometimes of single assemblies, sometimes of the places of habitual concourse for worship and preaching, and sometimes for all the congregations associated together in union, as in a city or province. It is also used simply to denote the whole united body of the faithful. It is then spoken of as a divine organizationviz. "the Church of God"--and called "the kingdom of God." ""the kingdom of heaven,' my kingdom by Jesus himself, and "the household of God." St. Paul describes the church as the body of which Christ is the Head, as the husband is the head of the wife, and, further, as the organic body of which his disciples are members in particular; "members of his body;" "the church which is his body, the fulness of him that filleth all in all." The original idea of the Church, therefore, contains several particulars: (1) It is an organism, and as such gives and nourishes the divine life. (2) It is an organization whose functions are disciplinary, defensive, and instructive. (3) It is a convocation, duly called, but voluntarily entered, and constantly open to free ingress or regress. There is yet another idea of the Church, modern in origin, but so prevalent as to constitute the common and most popular view of the Church entertained in America. This idea is philosophical, and will be considered later.

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In the wild form the ray florets are strap-shaped and the disc florets tubular, with fine regular teeth, much as in the common ox-eye daisy; but the florists have so developed them that there are numerous subclasses or sections, such as those which have flowers like the normal form, though in varied colors, which are called anemone flowers. Then there are those with tubular flowers changed to strap-shaped, as in the ray florets, with some curving upward, others downward, and some fairly horizontal. Some have the petals rolled up like quills. Again, there are classes founded on the edges of the corollas. Some have the strapshaped florets deeply cleft, and the tubular ones have also forms more or less deeply lobed; and there are quilled ones, which have the apices flattened and presenting a spoon-like character. Much skill is also employed in growing the plants in different forms. Often several stalks are permitted to come up from the earth in the pot, and then neatly spread out by almost invisible stakes. Plants perfect hemispheres of four feet across are often thus obtained. Some train them as pyramids, others on fan-shaped wire trellises; but the great effort with the best cultivators is to get the finest plant possible from only a single stem in one pot. The plant is made bushy by judiciously pinching out the ends of the young shoots as they grow. They endure a considerable amount of frost in the Northern United States, but are killed by unusually severe winters; and their popularity is chiefly when employed as pot-plants for rooms and conservatories in late autumn and the early winter season of the year.

See Vol. V.

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ment also. The former belongs to bishops alone, although presbyters concur and join in "the laying on of hands by which orders are conferred. Of government, however, the bishops retain exclusively only the executive portion, having admitted priests, deacons, and even laymen, to the legislative functions, and to some extent even to the juridical. Some hold that this right of legislation belonged to all orders of the clergy, with the laity, from the first. These appeal to the first Council in Jerusalem (Acts xv.), in which apostles and elders and brethren" exercised legislative and judicial functions. Those who adhere to the Papacy retain all the functions of ecclesiastical government in the hands of the bishops, subject always to the pope. Those who reject the episcopacy confine these functions to their ministers and elders. The ministers receive authority with their orders, which comes by regular transmission through some who have themselves been duly ordained. The elders are chosen by the members of settled congregations, and constitute, with the minister, the session.' This session has all governmental power-legislative, judicial, and executive in the congregation, and is the source whence delegated power is given to the ascending gradations of presbyteries, synods, and assemblies among the Presbyterians, or of consistories, classes, and synods among the German and Dutch Reformed, and of synods among the Lutherans, etc. There is nothing in the defensive and instructive functions of the historic ecclesiastical organizations which is distinctively American. The usual public preaching is done by those in orders, though laymen often take part in occasional meetings for missionary and educational advancement, or in those called for moral and social improvement.

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The historical Church in America, must, of course, include all those aspects which are given to it in the New Testament. It must also be based upon "the foundation of the apostles and prophets, Jesus Christ himself being the chief corner-stone.' The historical continuity of the Church, as a fact and a necessity, is generally accepted in America. Two distinct, and indeed antagonistic, schools of opinion, exist, however. They disagree as to what actually constituted the essence of the Church in the beginning, and they are divided upon all three of its distinctive points. Both agree that it is a spiritual body, but one so dwells upon the spiritual aspect that it regards the true Church as invisible even on earth; while the other regards its visibility as belonging to its essence, necessary both to its continuity and to the efficacy of its administration. Under the second class may be placed the Roman Catholics, the Episcopalians, Moravians, Presbyterians, German and Dutch Reformed, and Lutherans. The first of these claim that to St. Peter was given supremacy over all the other apostles, and that the pope is the lineal descendant, in the episcopate of Rome, of St. Peter. They assert, therefore, that communion under the pope is necessary to membership in the Church of Christ. The others agree in rejecting this Roman claim, and in regarding the Church in America as necessarily continuous through visible transmission of authority. They differ as to one point essential for transmission. Episcopalians claim that the apostolic succession comes through bishops only, regularly ordained in unbroken line from the apostles' time to the present. The others hold that the apostles were not made a distinct and perpetual order in the ministry, but had an office which rested only upon the original twelve, with St. Paul, and came to an end at the death The historical churches recognize the convocational of St. John. Presbyters were at first, and are yet, character of the Church, and hence regard it, in some they claim, the one divine order of the ministry that respects, as a voluntary association, but not so as to was intended to be perpetual in the Church. There take away its primitive origin and consequent continuare other Christian bodies in America holding a distinct, ity. They hold that membership in the Church is esfundamental position, which are reserved for considera-sentially voluntary where persons "have attained to tion when the philosophical idea of the self-evolute years of discretion.' Those who baptize infants reChurch is discussed. They hold that the true Church gard them as church members, who should take upon even on earth is invisible, and they claim a right to themselves the baptismal vows when they reach the exist, and act as parts of the living body of Christ, be- years of due understanding and judgment. Those who cause of adherence to what they call the essential ab- hold high views of the sacraments teach that the stract truth of the gospel. baptized infant is, by the ever-present, unseen "Head over all things to his Church," actually then and there organically engrafted into himself and made a member of his body. They rely upon the promise of his continual presence, given at the institution of baptism. Even I. They agree in general that the Church is an they, however, recognize the right and duty of voluntary organism, but a great variety of opinions prevail as to acceptance of baptismal obligations, and provide for a the functional operations of the organism. The confirmation both of the vows and the grace at an authorized formularies of all declare that an actual early period of moral consciousness and sense of duty. personal union with Christ, the Head of the Church, Those who have not retained confirmation, as a definite is formally made by baptism, and that the one sacrifice rite or sacrament, receive baptized persons to the comis truly fed upon in the Eucharist. They differ, how-munion upon examination as to faith and personal ever, with one another, and even among themselves, Christian "experience.' in interpreting the meaning of their formularies. Those, occupying the extreme on one side look upon the sacraments as merely convenient badges and signs of the Christian profession, obligatory because divinely appointed; while those on the opposite extreme regard them as effective ex opere operato. Between these two extremes many various opinions are prevalent, and controversies, of course, are common.

The historic churches-so designated for distinction's sake-claim visible continuity from the earliest Christian age to the present, and assert the necessity of this continuity until the end of time.

II. While the historic churches agree in the position that a distinctive organization was given to the visible Church in the beginning, they differ as to the original form, the mode of its transmission, the seat of authority, and the extent of its powers. The extremes in these cases extend from the exclusive claims of the Papacy to that of a joint disciplinary authority vested in presbyters and people together, and acting through their conjoint concurrence. Among those that adhere to the Episcopal regimen, while rejecting the Papacy, the idea is common that bishops are the original depositaries, not only of the ordaining function, but of govern

Those who retain the episcopacy, and claim organic identity with the primitive Church catholic through an unbroken succession of bishops in and to the apostolic order, and yet deny the exclusive catholicity as well as papal claims of the Church of Rome, constitute to prominent bodies in America and differ somewhat in administration. Their popular names are Episcopalians and Moravians.

Those generally called Episcopalians, but who in habitual language speak of themselves as "Churchmen." recognize bishops, presbyters, and deacons as holding distinct orders in the ministry, and as having each their own governmental and ministerial powers, rights, and duties. The bishop has the oversight of a diocese or of a defined missionary jurisdiction, presides ex-officio at all conventions, votes, or may give a casting vote. The judicial functions of the bishop are based upon the fundamental idea of chief-pastorship. He is over the pastors of the parishes, and is supposed to exercise a fatherly influence, and, where needful,

control. Hence in case of the trial of a clergy man the bishop only can pass sentence, which he may do or not upon revision of the evidence. Trials are always before a court, in most instances appointed especially for the case, though some dioceses have each a fixed and standing court. In every instance, however, a priest must be tried by priests, and a bishop by bishops. The rights of the brethren or "laity to voice and vote in legislation are universally acknowledged. The clergy and laity, in a governmental capacity, meet first in the parish, which is a body politic as well as ecclesiastic, and is recognized by the State as a corporation. Its limits are defined by both statute and canon law. Es sentially, it consists of two portions. The clergyman, or rector of a parish, has exclusive direction in spiritual matters and concurrent authority in temporals. The temporal affairs are administered by a vestry composed of laymen and presided over by the rector. This laical element is recognized in all diocesan conventions, which meet annually, and in the General Convention, which meets triennially. In diocesan conventions laymen sit as chosen delegates of parishes in the same house with clergymen, who sit by right of office, the bishop presiding. In the General Convention clerical and lay deputies from dioceses or missionary jurisdictions form a lower house, while the bishops constitute an upper house, wherein they sit by virtue of their office. There is no judicial system distinct from the legislative. Provision is generally made by canon for trial of a bishop or presbyter through specific courts appointed for specific cases as they arise, while certain methods and orders of proceeding are prescribed. Where, as in some dioceses, permanent courts for trial of presbyters exist, they are also fully governed by canons. Deacons are amenable to bishops only.

The laity are under the disciplinary authority of the rectors of their parishes, with appeal to the bishop, whose adjudication is final. They can, however, only be suspended from communion, and that solely for scandalous offences or for open enmity with one another.

Upon the whole, the position of the Episcopal Church in America is that of a body which claims historic continuity with the Church of all ages through the apostolic office perpetuated by the succession of bishops from the apostolic times, and possessing identically the same means of grace which, given by Christ in the beginning, are always accompanied by his effective personal presence, and made specifically effective to faithful receivers or partakers through the vivifying operation of the Holy Spirit ever present through Christ in the Church, which is his body.

While praying in their liturgy for the visible unity of the Church, and expressing commonly an earnest desire for its restoration, the Episcopalians do not generally favor any schemes for "evangelical alliance. The Greek Church, the Old Catholic, and by most the Moravian, are recognized as integral portions of the Church catholic, but the Protestant denominations are regarded as broken off from the organic continuity of the visible Church by their rejection of apostolic succession through the episcopal order. They fault the Roman Church for claiming papal supremacy and for additions to the Catholic Creed.

The Reformed Episcopalians are as yet a small body that seceded from the Episcopal Church, and held a convention first in New York, Dec. 2, A. D. 1873. George David Cummins, D.D., assistant bishop of the diocese of Kentucky, led the movement. Their distinctive peculiarity is an entire rejection of the organic idea of the Church, naturally accompanied with strong opposition to priesthood and the efficacy of sacraments. They hold that episcopacy is ancient and desirable as a form of government, but not of divine origin. Their bishops are without dioceses or defined jurisdiction. They exercise their office at large, and serve parishes as ordinary presbyters.

The Moravians, or United Brethren, do not differ

materially from the same body in Germany and Great Britain. They are divided into three provinces, that in this country being the American. They retain the episcopate, with the orders of presbyter and deacon. The bishop administers a diocese, but has assistants or conseniors, who sit with the bishops in the "Upper House of Synod." A primate presides. The lower house is composed of the priests, though candidates for holy orders and other laymen are admitted to seats without votes. The American Provincial Synod meets triennially, and elects a body, called" provincial elders' conference," to administer government in the intervals between Synods. It has power to appoint ministers over parishes. There are four district synods, that meet annually. Over all is the General Synod of the three provinces, which meets every ten or twelve years in Saxony, and elects a body of twelve bishops and other ministers, called "the unity's elders' conference," which exercises general supervision over the whole Moravian body.

The historic churches in America which reject episcopacy altogether, and hold to one order of ministry as established at first in the primitive Church, and since transmitted in unbroken succession, are the Lutherans, the German Reformed, the Dutch Reformed, and the Presbyterians.

The Lutherans do not differ materially from the same body in Europe. Swedish Lutherans seem to have been the first in this country. They settled at Wilmington, Del., A. D. 1638. Others from Germany settled in New York, in 1644. Still others, refugees from civil oppression and religious intolerance in Salzburg in Germany, settled in Georgia in 1734.

The first Lutheran Synod in America was organized in Philadelphia, Aug. 14, 1748, under the influence of Dr. Henry Melchior Muhlenberg, who had come from Germany upon urgent solicitation from the Lutherans in this country. Besides Dr. Muhlenberg, three German and two Swedish Lutherans composed this first synod. They "set apart" the first German Lutheran in America for the work of the ministry. The General Synod was organized Oct. 22, 1820, by delegates representing 135 ministers out of 170, and 33,000 out of 35,000 communicants. The Church grew slowly, and synods were established under the General Synod. After the late war between the South and North the Southern Lutherans came together, in what they styled the "General Synod of North America.' In the North doctrinal controversies arose between the strict and liberal adherents of the Augsburg Confession. The Church, North and South, held a General Council in Fort Wayne, Ind., in November, 1867. Although divisions were not all healed, nor controversies terminated, the tendency among the Lutherans, like that among all the different Christian bodies in America, was from that time, and still continues, toward tolerance of differences and unity of action.

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The German Reformed Church had a status in America early in the eighteenth century, having settlements in five of the Middle States, especially in Pennsylvania and Virginia. Under the influence of the Rev. Michael Schlatter, from St. Gall, Switzerland, the first synod or coetus was organized in Philadelphia, Sept. 29, 1747, and placed under the direction of the Classis of Amsterdam. It remained thus until A. D. 1793, when an autonomous synod was organized, a constitution adopted, and the name taken, "High German Reformed Church.' For some years the Church suffered for the want of educated ministers and from disorderly persons. The constitution was revised A. D. 1819, and the synod, which hitherto had consisted of one minister and one delegate from every parish, became a representative body. Its members were chosen by ministers and elders belonging to the classes. This has grown until the present order was fixed and settled. Now a classis is made up of the ministers and one elder from every parish within a given district. A synod is composed of delegates

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