of the same year. Since 1899 the value of the silver rupee has been stable at the rate fixedIs. 4d. (32.4 cents). The coinage of rupees, which for some years after 1893 almost ceased, became large in 1900-01, and the profit on the coinage was set aside as a special gold reserve fund to be used in maintaining the rate of exchange between Great Britain and India. There is a comparatively small amount of paper money in circulation in India. It is legal tender within certain limited districts. amount outstanding in March, 1912, was 613,625,095 rupees, about two-thirds of which was in the districts of Calcutta and Bombay.

The

According to the Indian money system, 100,000 rupees equal 1 lakh, and 100 lakhs equal 1 crore. Hence a sum that would be read in terms of rupees only, according to the English method, would, according to the Indian method, be differently punctuated and read in terms of both the larger and the smaller denominations. To illustrate: the sum 37884517000 rupees would in English read 37,884,517,000 rupees, but in the Indian notation it would be written 3,788,45,17,000 and read "Three thousand seven hundred eighty-eight crores, forty-five lakhs, seventeen thousand rupees." In Indian money estimates sums are often given in tens of rupees, the abbreviation being rx.

Civil Service. The administrative offices are largely filled through civil-service appointments. Candidates taking the examination required to secure a position must be under 24 years of age. The successful candidate is then on probation for a year in England, during which period certain requirements are to be fulfilled, as, e.g., the learning of the Indian law.

Far

Defense. The supremacy of the British sea power practically guarantees India from invasion by way of the sea, and the Himalaya Mountains perform a like service for a great part of the north frontier. The main interest in the defense of India centres about the northwest frontier, which is the historic gateway for invasions into India. In the last two decades of the nineteenth century the British adopted a more active frontier policy. They have established outposts and fortifications commanding the mountain passes that communicate with the west and north and more securely defend the Trans-Indus region. The British have a post of observation at Chitral and possess an "influence" at Gilgit which enables them to keep informed as to the Hindu Kush passes. ther south the Swat valley is in the hands of the British. The important Khyber Pass (q.v.) is open, and the large garrison stationed at Peshawar serves to protect it. Continuing south, the Kuram and the Tochi valleys are controlled by the British, as are also the Gunal Pass and the Zhob valley. Quetta has been made a strong defensive point, as has also Sakkar-the city on the Indus where the railroad crosses to the westward. A number of posts along the earlier frontier line farther east are still maintained; others have been abandoned. The scheme of defense has led to the construction of railroads for military purposes, one of which extends to New Chaman, the farthest outpost on the Afghan frontier. These lines now make it possible quickly and easily to transport the soldiers to the different frontier strongholds.

The threatening approach of the Russians to the Indian frontier has established an excuse

for the British to maintain a large army. The experience of the Sepoy rebellion has led them to increase the proportion which the British troops hold to the total military force, the intention being that the latter shall constitute one-third of the total number, and that the artillery shall be almost wholly British. The native soldiers are drawn largely from a few tribes, such as the Sikhs, Gurkhas, Rajputs, and Jats, who are the warrior races of the country and are much more efficient as soldiers than are the masses of the population. Class distinctions are recognized, and the different units in the army organization are composed of homogeneous elements. Through the improvement of sanitary conditions, and the exercise of greater caution in locating British soldiers, fatalities are of much less frequent occurrence than formerly. The native states still maintain military forces, but the British have succeeded in their effort to have their number reduced and brought more or less under their own control. For a statement concerning the organization and statistics of the army, see UNITED KINGDOM, Army.

Weights and Measures. The unit of weight commonly used is the maund, but it varies greatly in amount, being equivalent to 822 pounds avoirdupois in Bengal, only about 28 pounds in Bombay, and 25 pounds in Madras. The tola, a small unit, is equivalent to 180 grains. In Bengal there is a unit of measure called the gaz, equivalent to 36 inches. An Act was passed in 1871 to establish a uniform decimal system of weights and measures, but it has never gone into operation.

Population. India is one of the most densely populated countries, containing between onefifth and one-sixth of the estimated population of the world. In 1911 the number of inhabitants per square mile was 175, as against 27.14 for the United States. The population is most unevenly distributed, nearly two-fifths being found in the valley of the Ganges. As shown in the table, the density is greatest in the Province of Bengal, 578 per square mile, and in Behar, 561. The density of the population corresponds in a general way to the capacity of the different regions to support life, yet there are noteworthy exceptions, as in Assam and Lower Burma, each of which could easily support a much more numerous population than it now does. In most districts the population presses closely upon the limits of the means of subsistence, and cannot increase greatly so long as agriculture continues to be almost the sole dependence. There has been generally an increase, and in many places a very marked increase, of population since the British took possession. Prior to that time numerous wars, together with famine, plague, and pestilence, tended to check augmentation. The instability of the government discouraged industrial enterprise, and much land possible to cultivate was left waste. Under British protection such land has been largely reclaimed, and the productive capacity of the country greatly increased.

The first attempt of the British to secure a complete census was made in 1872, when the total population was estimated to be 240,931,000. The returns for certain regions were only estimated, and were generally rendered uncertain through the lack of confidence on the part of the natives in the purpose of the government. In subsequent enumerations there have been

greater confidence on the part of the people and a corresponding increase in the accuracy of the returns. The total population for 1901 was 294,361,056; 1911, 315,156,396; 1921, 319,075,132. It should be remembered that certain additions of territory have augmented slightly this increase. The gain during the decade 1891-1901 was 4.7 per cent in the provinces, while the states showed a decrease of 5 per cent. The gain in the provinces of the last decade was 5.5 per cent; the population of the native states increased 12.9 per cent, including the new territory. Decreases were shown chiefly in the Punjab. The contrast shown above between one period and the other and between region and another is largely attributable to the variable agricultural conditions.

one

The following is a table of the area and population of India and its dependencies:

sands. The country had not many large cities until the period of commercial development brought about by the British. Commerce has occasioned an immense growth in Calcutta and Bombay, but except these cities Madras and Hyderabad alone exceed half a million each. (See table below.) Another peculiarity is the large proportion of males compared with European countries. The great privacy to which the females are subjected, particularly among the Mohammedans, and the aversion to intrusion on their domestic privacy, may serve partly to account for this discrepancy. Statistics for famine districts show that in these regions there is a greater decrease in the male population than the female. It is generally accepted that women withstand the privations of famine better than men.

POPULATION OF THE LARGEST CITIES (INCLUDING IN MOST CASES CANTONMENTS)

Total population in

CITIES

Ajmer-Merwara.

Andamans and Nico

5,841,878

382,106

42,141,477

Behar and Orissa.

83,181

34,490,084

33,242,783

19,672,642 18,559,650

12,115,217 10,490,624

Delhi..

208,575

232,837

Central Provinces and

Coorg

Delhi *.

1,582 557

391,828 41,405,404

Northwest Frontier

Cawnpore

197,170

178,557

Allahabad

Punjab (including

Native States and Agen

cies † (total).

Karachi.

Mandalay. Jaipur. Patna.

Education. Education on the part of England in India has been carried on in the face of many serious obstacles and under complex conditions peculiar to the country. Social, religious, and racial distinctions, solidified in the system of caste, were so thoroughly interwoven with the whole of the life that they circumscribed the scope and modified the methods of English instruction. British education has never had to deal in India with the implanting of Western culture on an Oriental people having no culture of their own, but with the superimposing of one system of culture upon another more philosophically profound in its sphere, and upon a people who cherished an educational lore that antedated by far the one

† See article INDIA, NATIVE STATES OF.

Aden, on the Arabian coast, with an Arabian protectorate embracing 15,500 square miles, and Socotra, a dependency of Aden, are officially included within the Empire of India.

A striking characteristic of the population is that it is so largely rural. Estimates show that about nine-tenths of the total belong to this class. This is true of even the most densely populated regions. The largest city in the most densely populated division of Bengal (Patna) has but 136,000 inhabitants. It must be understood, however, that the rural population is everywhere gathered in villages which may contain only a few families or may number thou

tion such as it was and restricted to the sanctioned castes-chiefly the Brahman-had never been wanting in India. When the English began to introduce the new system, a bitter dispute arose as to how much recognition should be given this ancient and native learning, e.g., whether the English classics should supplant the Sanskrit and Arabic, and whether the English or the vernacular should be used medium of instruction. These questions were finally decided in favor of European as against Oriental knowledge, and in favor of the vernacular as a medium, though English became prominent in advanced instruction, and generous provisions were made to bring it within reach of all who desired it.

as a

This system, which was finally adopted and which in the main continues to-day, was outlined by Lord Halifax in 1854. An investigating commission, reporting in 1883, approved the system, but favored emphasizing certain features, such as the encouragement of native schools and of primary and female education, to the end that the masses might share more liberally in the benefits of learning. Religious instruction has never been permitted in the state schools-a policy different from that pursued by the English government in the schools of England, and which has generally been opposed by the clerical and missionary interests. At the same time the state advances financial aid to missionary schools without discrimination as to sect and endeavors to avoid competition with them by not establishing schools where the missionary schools already provide adequate facilities. Both missionary and state schools are under the supervision of state inspectors and must conform to certain regulations. Grants in aid consist of salary grants, results' grants, building grants, etc. The state educational system is complete in scope, including primary, secondary, and collegiate instruction, and is systematically organized and administered. Normal schools are maintained in every province. There are five universities Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, the Punjab, and Allahabad. They consist of examining bodies only, but have a large number of affiliated colleges. The number of persons receiving instruction has greatly increased during the past half century. The field of education is, however, limited. The attendance is largely from the middle classes, especially in the state schools, and while the missionaries reach a larger proportion from the lower castes, the entire number is small in comparison with the number of persons to whom opportunities for education never

come.

Two criticisms in particular have been urged against the present system. The first is the relative overemphasis of higher education. This emphasis has been in accordance with the "filtering down theory," under which it was thought that the masses could be reached best through the agency of a highly educated native class. This theory in practice, however, leaves the masses untouched. The other criticism is that too much attention is given to classical and not enough to industrial instruction, and that accordingly the pupils are not fitted to take an active part in the industrial transformation which the country needs.

In 1911-12 there were 2,245,468 pupils in public institutions under public management, 3,892,775 pupils in public institutions under private management (aided and unaided), and 657,728 in private institutions. Of these 4116

were in British Baluchistan. Of the total 6,791,855 in India proper, only 953,989 were females. The average daily attendance represents about 77 per cent of the total number of pupils, but the relation of the average attendance to the total enrollment differs greatly in the different provinces. The grand total of all pupils in public and private institutions increased from 3,692,000 in 1890 to 6,795,971 in 1912. Native Christian pupils numbered 197,481, Hindu 4,406,983, Mohammedan 1,562,007, Europeans and Eurasians, 34,958, and others (mainly Buddhists), 600,254 (data for March 31, 1912). In public institutions there were

over 95 per cent of the pupils studying the vernacular language; the percentage of those studying the classical languages and the English language was small. Nearly 28 per cent of the proceeds used for education was derived from fees, the remainder being divided between provincial, local, and municipal funds and other sources. The total expenditure on public instruction increased gradually from £2,210,563 in 1894-95 to £5,250,922 in 1911-12.

Important changes of educational policy in 1913, apart from increased grants to elementary schools, were foreshadowed with respect to the universities. It was officially promised that a university at Dacca, with 11 constituent, residential, and teaching colleges, is to be organized as a type intended to supersede the existing universities, which consist of affiliated, nonresident examining colleges. This change would be an approximation to the lines on which Oxford and Cambridge universities are organized. Progress was also made in the work of giving native educational institutions of importance, such as the Mohammedan College at Aligarh, a university standing, and the establishing of universities also at Benares, Rangoon, Patna, and other places was discussed. In these attempts any design of interfering with religious prejudices has been entirely excluded.

RELIGION

The

From the earliest times India has been a land of numerous religions, and the creeds professed there to-day are almost as great in number as they are varied in spirit and character. majority of the people acknowledge Hinduism or Brahmanism (q.v.) as their faith. In the census of 1911 their number is given as over 217,000,000. Next in proportion, claiming about a third of this number, is Mohammedanism, which was introduced into India in the eleventh century and spread with great rapidity. Its adherents claim no less than 66,000,000 souls throughout India, their numbers being largest in the north. Together these religions make up the faith of approximately 90 per cent of the entire population. The number of Buddhists is given at over 10,000,000; they are nearly all inhabitants of Burma. Statistics show that the number of nature worshipers, who are roughly classed under the head of animistic, is over 10,000,000, while the Sikh religion is professed by over 3,000,000 individuals. Besides these there is a large representation of Jains (over 1,000,000) and a scattering number of Parsis (about 100,000). The spread of Christianity among the natives has been extensive, for the number is considerably above 3,000,000 souls. There are nearly 21,000 Jews. Separate articles will be found devoted to the most important branches of Indian religions. (See BRAHMANISM; BUDDHISM; HINDUISM; JAINISM; MOHAMMEDANISM; PARSIS; SIKHS.) The results of the religious survey of India in the census of 1911 present the statistics on page 74. The first table is itemized by provinces for British India, with totals for native states and agencies. The second is for the summary of the Christian population.

For convenience of treatment, the religious development of India may be divided into the following periods: first, the Vedic era, or earliest religious beliefs of the Aryan Hindus; second, Brahmanism proper, or the faith incul

Hindu sectarian outgrowths and the tendencies of the popular faiths. The Rig-Veda and Atharva-Veda represent the literature of the earliest period; the Yajur-Veda is nearer to the second religious phase, or the Brahmanism of the priests; the sacred books of the Buddhistic and Jainistic reformations are written respectively in Pali (q.v.) and Prakrit (q.v.); again, the great Sanskrit epic poems of the Mahabharata and the Rāmāyana represent both the purer Brahmanic stage and the later sectarian tendencies; for the latter our chief source of information is that class of mythological

gathered from various sources. With reference to the time of these eras we can only say in a general way that the Vedic period runs from a very early period down to about 1000 B.c. or a couple of centuries afterward, and merges into the Brahmanic age, which closes perhaps about 500 B.C. The age of Buddhism was from about 500 B.C. to 500 A.D., and the period of epic Hinduism, according to Hopkins, covers about the same centuries. From 500 to 1500 A.D. is the era of Brahmanic counterreforms and of sectarianism, while since that time unifying tendencies have been more operative than ever before. It is necessary at the outset, however, to guard the reader against attempting to connect dates with the earlier of these periods. It has not been uncommon for writers on this subject to assign thousands of years before the Christian era as the starting points of various phases of Hindu antiquity; others, more cautious, marked the beginnings of certain divisions of Vedic works with 1200, 1000, 800, and 600 years B.C. The truth is that, since Hindu literature itself is almost without known dates, owing either to the peculiar organization of the Hindu mind or to the convulsions of Indian history, the present condition of Sanskrit philology does not afford the scholar the requisite resources for embarking with any chance of success in such chronological speculations. The question of Hindu chronology will be more particularly considered in the article VEDA. In the meantime the utmost stretch of assumption which in the present condition of Sanskrit philology it is permitted to make is that the latest writings of the Vedic class are not more recent than the

second century before Christ. A like uncertainty hangs over the period at which the two great epic poems of India were composed, although there is reason to surmise that the lower limits of that period did not reach beyond the beginning of the Christian era. The Puranic period, on the other hand, scholars are gen