cles he has found a new substance, to which he gives the name of hypochlorin. When chlorophyl-cells are placed for twenty-four hours in dilute hydrochloric acid, and then washed with water and laid in glycerine, in a short time brownish drops are seen to ooze out of the chlorophyl-granules. These consist of hypochlorin, which has been drawn out of the interior of the granule, probably by the mechanical action of the acid. After a space of time, long spiral needles, which seem to be imperfect crystals, form from the drops of hypochlorin. No hypochlorin is obtained from chlorophyl tissue which has been strongly heated. Wiesner found that chlorophyl is destroyed by intense sunlight. Pringsheim has shown that excessive sunshine destroys not only hypochlorin as well, but breaks down other constituents of the living plant-cell. The destruction of these substances, he found, by subjecting the parts of plants to concentrated sunlight, and interposing different coloring matters, takes place in the cold blue rays as well as in the warm red rays-much faster, indeed, in blue light. The decomposition was clearly due to a peculiar action of light, and not to the heating effect of the sun's rays. Further experiments showed that it only took place in the presence of free atmospheric oxygen. It was therefore a process of oxidation excited by light. It was known that the process of oxidation, analogous to the breathing of animals, took place in plant-cells, not only in the dark, but in the light as well; though it was believed to be more rapid in the dark. Pringsheim's observations prove that. light greatly accelerates the process. Light seems, then, to perform two distinct and opposite parts in vegetation, one in the reduction of carbonic acid to substances poor in oxygen and highly combustible, the other in the combustion of certain of these assimilated materials. If the assimilation did not proceed more actively than the process of oxidation, plant-life would be impossible. The function of chlorophyl seems to be, then, to act as a shield or screen to prevent excessive oxidation, protecting the combustible products of assimilation from the action of light, which appears to excite and intensify the oxidation.

The first step in the nutritive process of plants, the primary assimilation product formed from inorganic matter, is an interesting subject of speculation. The laws of arithmetical proportion, which govern the combination of analogous organic compounds, have led to the prediction of numerous substances before they had been obtained in a separate state. The theory of Baeyer, that formic aldehyde, CH,O, is the primary assimilation product, which forms the basis of the various hydrocarbons, is, therefore, not without justification. Pringsheim advances the hypothesis that hypochlorin is the product of the assimilative process. It will probably be obtained separate from other bodies and in quantities admitting

of analysis, and then its claim as the product of assimilation can be better considered. Prings heim's supposition that it is a compound poor in oxygen is rendered likely by its ready combustion under the influence of focalized sunlight. Its generation in the chlorophyl-granules, and the little that is known of its chemical behavior, are indications in favor of its being the radical developed by the assimilative process, if there be but one, which, by a more moderate oxidation in the living cells, passes over into the hydrocarbons, oils, and other organic compounds. It is always associated with chlorophyl. In the seedlings of angiospermous plants which have been kept in the dark, neither chlorophyl nor hypochlorin are found. After they have been exposed to light awhile, they begin to turn green, and not till then do they show any traces of hypochlorin. A remarkable exception to the general rule is presented by seedlings of the conifers, since these produce both chlorophy and hypochlorin, though kept in a place where no light has access.

CLAYTON-BULWER TREATY. (See PANAMA CANAL.)

CLIFFORD, NATHAN, born at Rumney, New Hampshire, August 18, 1803; died at Cornish, Maine, July 25, 1881. In the Haverhill Academy he received a common-school education, and afterward graduated at the Hampton Literary Institution, being indebted to his own exertions for this advantage. He studied law, was admitted to the bar, and commenced the practice of his profession in York County, Maine, 1827. In 1830 he was elected to the State Legislature as Representative from the town of Newfield, as a member of the Democratic party, of which he was considered one of the ablest leaders. He served until 1834, having been elected Speaker of the House in 1833. By Governor Dunlap Mr. Clifford was appointed Attorney-General of the State of Maine, which office he filled with distinguished ability. In 1838 he was nominated for Congress as a Representative from York district in place of Mr. John Fairfield, who was then the Democratic candidate for Governor. After an excited contest, he was elected by a large majority over Mr. Nathan D. Appleton, Whig. In 1840 he took the field as an advocate of Mr. Van Buren's re-election, and met in public discussions some of the most distinguished Whig orators, being recognized as one of the eloquent champions of the Democracy. He was re-elected to the Twenty-seventh Congress, receiving nine hundred majority of votes over Daniel Goodenow, Whig.

On Mr. Polk's accession to the presidency, Mr. Clifford was appointed Attorney-Genera of the United States. In this high position he acquitted himself in a manner which received the commendations of the bar and of the Supreme Court. As a member of Mr. Polk's Cabinet his talents were acknowledged by his party, and, when the Mexican War was draw

ing to a close, and the complications of General Scott, Mr. Trist, and Governor Marcy threatened the success of much that had been won by our arms, Mr. Clifford was sent to Mexico with full powers to conclude a treaty. Superseding all the functionaries as commissioner of the United States, he arranged the treaty of peace by which California became an integral portion of the United States. After bringing about this important piece of diplomacy, and having ratified the treaty with the reorganized Mexican Republic, he received the appointinent of minister to Mexico as a testimonial for his valuable services. He remained there long enough to cement the new peace, and to secure the cordial and complete execution of the articles of the treaty, when he resigned, and went back to the practice of his profession in Portland, Maine. Although he did not again appear as a candidate for office during seven years, he found time to advocate the principles of Democracy and State Rights on all important occasions. At the bar of Maine he won an enviable reputation for forensic skill, and cominanded a large and lucrative practice. In January, 1858, President Buchanan appointed him Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, and the intelligence of his elevation to this dignity was received with general satisfaction throughout the country, especially in Maine. He had been the first member of the Cabinet taken from that State, and the only representative she ever had in the Supreme Court.

The many years of his service on the bench were marked by a stern devotion to duty, as well as by integrity and capacity, and his appointment to the presidency of the famous Electoral Commission was everywhere regarded as most appropriate. He was a firm believer in Tilden's title, and his position made it necessary for him to sign the decisions of the commission. The preparation of the papers in the Florida case fell to Senator Hoar, on account of Senator Edmunds's illness, and their completion was delayed until within a few minutes of noon of the 4th of March. By insisting upon a rigid personal scrutiny of the papers Judge Clifford could have put off their execution until too late for the inauguration of Mr. Hayes. He did not, however, throw the smallest obstacle in the way of the work, but showed almost equal anxiety with Mr. Hoar in hurrying it forward, and promptly affixed his signature as soon as the documents were completed. During the administration of Mr. Hayes, however, he never went to the White House. In October, 1880, he was attacked with a serious illness, which was so severe that it not only incapacitated him from work, but affected his reason; despite a robust and hardy constitution, a complication of disorders arose, gangrene supervened, and it was found necessary to amputate one of his feet. From this illness he never recovered, and in his death the country has lost a man distin

guished for diplomatic and legal talents of a high order.

CLINTON, J. J., died May 25, 1881, at Atlantic City, New Jersey. He was the senior bishop of the conference of the African Zion Methodist Episcopal Church. Bishop Clinton was born about the year 1820, and enjoyed school advantages which were at that time denied to most of his race, and, although not a graduate of any university, he received an excellent academic education, and by his unusual natural abilities soon rose into prominence. He commenced his ministerial labors as an accredited preacher in Philadelphia in 1839, and as local preacher in 1840, entering the itinerant sphere in 1841. He was ordained deacon in 1844, elder in 1846, and was elected and consecrated to the episcopal office in May, 1864. As a worker for the African Zion Connection, he was among the first, and during the forty years of his labors traveled through almost every State in the Union. He was Missionary Bishop to the South during and subsequent to the war, and accomplished remarkable results in establishing missions and annual conferences which were the life of the colored Methodist Church in the South. As a contributor to the press he was forcible, eloquent as a public speaker, and in his preaching wonderfully effective. Possessed of rare executive ability, it was conceded by both white and colored people that as an episcopal officer he had few superiors. His death resulted from paralysis, and memorial services were held by all the churches of the conferences in his honor.

COLOMBIA (REPÚBLICA DE COLOMBIA ). For statistics relating to area, territorial division, population, etc., see "Annual Cyclopædia" for 1877. Concerning the boundary question with Costa Rica, an extract of resolutions, passed in the Colombian Congress in 1880, was given in our volume for that year. It has been stated that toward the close of 1881 undoubted information had been received at Washington of a treaty said to have been signed between the two republics, intended for the purpose of securing European arbitration in the disputed question of isthmian territory. By the terms of the treaty, several arbitrators were proposed: First, the King of the Belgians; next, in case of that monarch's refusal, the King of Spain; and, finally, should the latter too decline, the President of the Argentine Republic. Neither of the disputants had made official communication of the treaty to the United States Government. It was hoped that the proposed arbitrators would refuse to act; for, if they accepted the offer, the Washington Government would, in the opinion of the author of the report, protest-"the United States claiming the rights of a virtual protectorate over the States upon the Isthmus of Panama as far as to the northern boundaries of the province of Chiriquí, and not disposed to relinquish that quasi-suzerainty, whatever the decision of a European arbitrator might be. It

is understood that M. de Lesseps is the author of the arbitration scheme, with a view to concentrate upon the Isthmus a European influence as against the United States, whose government is antagonistic to the Panama Canal." The President of Colombia was General Rafael Nuñez (from April 1, 1880, to March 31, 1882); and the Cabinet was composed of the following ministers: Foreign Affairs and Public Instruction, Señor R. Becerra (ad interim); Interior, Señor C. Calderon; Finance, Señor S. de Herrera; Commerce, Señor A. Roldan; Public Works, Post-Office, etc., Señor Gregorio Obregon; War and Marine, General Eliseo Payan.

The chief magistrates of the nine States were as follows:

Each of the foregoing functionaries has the title of president, except those of Cundinamarca and Tolima, who are styled governors. The Colombian Minister Plenipotentiary to the United States is General R. S. D. Vila; and the Colombian Consul-General at New York is Señor Luis de Pombo.

The United States Minister Plenipotentiary to Colombia is General Manney (accredited in 1881); and the United States consuls at Bogotá and the chief Colombian seaports respectively were as follows: Bogotá, Mr. B. Koppel; Panama, Mr. John M. Wilson; Aspinwall, Mr. James Thorington; Cartagena, Mr. Edmund W. P. Smith; Sabanilla and Barranquilla, Mr. E. P. Pellet; Rio Hacha, Mr. N. Davies (vice-consul).

The regulation strength of the army in time of peace is 3,000, and in time of war each of the nine States is required to furnish a contingent of one per cent of its population. The total number of officers in the Guardia Colombiana was officially given at 1,927 in 1880.

The revenue and expenditure of the republic for the fiscal year 1879-'80 were officially reported at $5,651,905 and $5,773,575, thus showing a deficit of $121,670. In the budget for the same year, the revenue and expenditure were estimated at $4,910,000 and $8,634,571; while in the President's message to Congress, on February 1, 1880, the revenue was set down at $10,469,291.07, and the expenditure at $9,926,013.524; but in these last figures must have been included items of expenditure extraordinary and loans to cover deficits.

"Owing to the peace which has been maintained, and which still reigns throughout the country," observes a Colombian newspaper correspondent, "a considerable rise is noticeable in national stocks. The custom-house department, for example, will produce in this financial year (1881-'82) from $4,250,000 to VOL. XXI.-8 A

lombia may congratulate themselves upon the era of prosperity now dawning on that country. Colombia, favored by nature and the world's commerce, is destined to become, via the Panama Canal, the connecting link between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and the medium of the commerce of two hemispheres. The Colombian Government, recognizing the important position thus assigned to it, has decided to re-establish its credit by recognizing at once its obligations to its foreign creditors, and has, by a circular, dated March 3, 1881, agreed hereafter to pay all coupons on its foreign debt as they fall due, and will pay immediately the coupon due October 31, 1879, in arrear, and also fund six quarterly coupons in arrear, giving bonds bearing 5 per cent interest. The secretary of the Foreign Bondholders' Committee has called a meeting for the 17th instant, to enable the bondholders to accept and ratify the above arrangement. The position of each bondholder will then be as follows: each holder of £100 stock will receive interest quarterly, on and from July 1st next, at the rate of 4 per cent per annum, hereafter to be increased to 5 per cent, and will receive in addition one coupon in arrear in cash, and six coupons in arrear in stock, making the nominal value of his holding £111 68. 3d. for each £100, bearing interest at the rate of 4 and 5 per cent, the present price of which is 45. Colombia, with such a future before her, necessitating her borrowing in the money markets of the world for the construction of railroads and other public works, has the strongest incentives to maintain her credit. Hence her creditors may be of good cheer.

SIR: The bondholders of the United States of Co

March 10, 1881.

In September of the same year, however, the Council of Foreign Bondholders communicated that they had received authentic information from Bogotá, under date July 6th, that the Colombian Congress had closed without any steps having been taken to secure the ratification of the convention of the 3d of March, 1881, with the bondholders. The resumption of payment was consequently indefinitely postponed.

The foreign trade of the republic, in the year 1879-'80, was of the total value of $24,391,984 (of which $13,804,981 was for exports), against $24,499,165 (of which $13,711,511 stood for exports).

The chief export staples are gold, silver, Peruvian bark, coffee, skins, tobacco, Panama hats, India-rubber, and cotton.

The trade carried on through the port of Panama is of two kinds, local and transit. Of the former, we shall here mention only that with the United States, whither the exports for the year ending December 31, 1879, were of the classes and values exhibited in the annexed tabular statement:

The value of the imports from the United States it is impossible to determine with precision, Panama being a free port of entry, and no official record being kept of imports thereto; but Consul Wilson estimates that value at $450,000 for the year mentioned. The commodities received from the United States are chiefly canned goods, fruits, jellies, corn, beef, beans, etc.; bacon, hams, lard, butter, breadstuffs; prints and other cotton fabrics. Since 1878 the trade in American dry goods appears to have greatly increased, from one half to two thirds of the entire quantity imported being of American manufacture, while formerly the supply was almost exclusively from Europe (Great Britain, France, and Germany). Panama merchants attribute this change to the present superiority of quality and style of the United States products, together with their comparative cheapness, but more particularly to the quality and style, since they find our fabrics to be preferred to all others, even at equality of prices.

As all merchandise in transitu is carried over the Panama Railway, an idea of the extent of the trade may be formed from the total tonnage of that line for the years 1876-'79, as shown by the following schedule:

COMMODITIES.

Bananas.

Cocoa-nuts.

Hides..

Ivory-nuts

Rubber..

Tortoise-shell

Wood

Old rope Sundries

Values. $152,551 85 18,177 99

1,392 27

124,459 48

Here follows a table exhibiting the quantities of the principal commodities received in transitu at Panama from Central and South America and transported by the Panama Railway in 1877, 1878, and 1879:

Total.....

55,518 85

5,510 00

778 72 1,518 60 86,614 14

$891,511 40

Cartagena, the finest and the only natural harbor in Colombia, has, besides its own local trade, that of the Sinu and Atrato Rivers, for which it is the port of entry, and the prospect of controlling before long much of the commerce now carried on through Barranquilla. This diver sion will be effected by means of a canal which,

tapping the Magdalena at Calamar, connects that river with the harbor of Cartagena, and which, reopened to navigation by the national and State governments, was under repairs as early as 1879, by an American engineer, and already navigable by craft of five feet draught. The cotton fabrics are almost exclusively from Great Britain and Germany: those from Manchester alone, in 1878, were of the value of $100,000.* United States products are little in demand, and the few articles received are regarded as inferior to similar commodities from Europe. French butter, for instance, brings $1 per pound; American, but 60 cents. The imports and exports at Cartagena for the year ending August 31, 1879, were as below:

Number of Quantities packages. (pounds).

Values.

38,194

2,106,688

12,772

576,510

17,507

1,313,106

7,148

479,864

552

98,130

Curaços.

259

45,622

Italy.

16,560

401,164

$210,058 70,901 290.542 99,182 13,433 4,559 8,058

Four lines of steamers make Panama their terminal port, namely: 1. The line from Panama to San Francisco; 2. That from Panama to Central America and Mexico; 3. From Panama to the South Pacific as far as Valparaiso; 4. From Panama to Guayaquil. two first-mentioned lines are owned and managed by the Pacific Mail Steamship Company, of New York; the two latter by the Pacific Steam Navigation Company, of Liverpool, England. The line from Panama to San Francisco runs two and, during the coffee season, three steamers a month each way, calling at Punta Arenas, Costa Rica; La Libertad, Salvador; San José, Guatemala; Acapulco, Manzanillo, San Blas, and Mazatlan, Mexico. The Central American and Mexican line runs three steamers per month, each way, calling at Punta Arenas, San Juan del Sur, Corinto, Amapala, La Union, La Libertad, San José, Champerico, Port Angle, and Acapulco. The line from Panama to the South Pacific runs weekly each way from Panama to Callao, calling at the

* About $1,000,000 of the imports from France were from other countries and in transit through France; and perhaps a like proportion of the exports to France were likewise for other countries.