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ments of Towns and Rural Districts"; "The Responsibility of the Church as regards the Opium-Trade with China"; "The Relation of the Church to the Social Movements of the Age, with Special Reference to Trades-Unions and Co-operation, and to the Local Administration of the License Laws"; "The Principles of the English Reformation as bearing on Questions of the Present Day"; "The Temperance Work of the Church, especially in Relation to its Parochial Organization"; "The Proper Attitude of the Church toward the Question of Sunday Observance"; "The Claims of the Revised Version of the New Testament to General Acceptance"; "Modes in which Religious Life and Thought may be influenced by Architecture, Painting, Sculpture, and Music "; and questions relating to the diocese of Durham, and the Elementary Education Act.

A judgment on the appeal of Mr. Mackonochie, a clergyman under censure for ritualism, against a decision of the Court of Arches, depriving him of his office, was given in the House of Lords, April 6th. The substantial question in the case, which had been argued a few weeks before, was whether Lord Penzance had power, as Dean of Arches, to pronounce a sentence suspending Mr. Mackonochie, ab officio et beneficio, for disobedience to a previous monition. The sentence of the Court of Arches had been upheld by the Court of Appeal, and their lordships now affirmed the decision of that court, and dismissed the appeal, with costs.

The fourth meeting of the General Synod of the Irish Episcopal Church was held in April. The Representative Body reported a summary of its work during the past ten years. The Body had now in its hands a capital of £7,500,000, of which £3,000,000 would be left after all claims and annuities were fully discharged, for the future re-endowment of the Church. Of this amount about £1,500,000 had been derived directly from the composition of annuities, and about £2,000,000 from voluntary contributions made to church funds during the last eleven years. About £130,000 a year was provided by way of parochial endowment, which, with parochial assessments amounting to £136,000, would provide about £266,000 for clerical sustentation. About £12,901 per annum would be secured for episcopal sustentation, and £25,000 would be set apart as the nucleus of a fund to provide for aged ministers. Glebehouses would be provided for 935 out of 1,140 parishes, at a cost of £543,000. A resolution was adopted looking to the revival of the bishopric of Clogher, which has been for a long time amalgamated with the primacy of Armagh.

The British Government having determined to discontinue the ecclesiastical subsidies which had hitherto been paid out of the colonial revenues to the Church of England in Ceylon, requested the Bishop of Colombo to take steps to have a trust body elected for the Church of

England, to which the property and interests held by the Church might be transferred, and to have provision made for the future maintenance of the churches which had hitherto enjoyed the governmental endowments. The bishop called a representative assembly, to consist of all the presbyters of the diocese and two laymen for each presbyter, elected by the congregations, to meet on the 5th of July. On the meeting of the synod, differences arose respecting the apportionment of delegates, the representatives of the Church Missionary Society claiming that it should have been made according to the number of members in the churches, and complaining that, according to the actual allotment, their churches with six thousand members had only thirty-four delegates, while the other churches in the island, with only seven thousand members, were allowed seventy delegates. A motion was made to assert the incompetency of the Assembly to deal with the questions before it, as it was not a fully representative body. This being ruled out of order, the representatives of the churches of the Church Missionary Society withdrew in a body. Four trustees were chosen to take care, under the control of a Central Board of Finance, of all the property to be transferred by the crown; and provision was made for the election of a bishop in case a vacancy in the office should occur before the Constitution of the Church is settled. A committee to consist of clergymen of all the shades of theological thought, and one layman to be selected by each clergyman, was agreed to by both sides, to which should be referred the question of the organization of the synod.

ANGLICAN RITUALISTIC CONTROVERSY. The controversy concerning the ritual, and with it the collateral question of the jurisdiction of civil courts over ecclesiastical affairs, engaged attention in the Church of England above all other subjects. These questions, or points connected with them, were the subjects of numerous memorials to the bishops, archbishops, convocation, and officers of the Government, of many addresses and letters by bishops, of public meetings, and of important discussions in the convocations.

The Archbishop of Canterbury having invited those of the clergy who felt dissatisfied or alarmed at the present circumstances of the Church to state what they desired in the way of remedy, the Dean of St. Paul's and about three thousand clergymen and others addressed to him a memorial, as follows:

First of all, and especially, we would respectfully express our desire for a distinctly avowed policy of toleration and forbearance on the part of our ecclesiastical superiors in dealing with questions of ritual. justice and by the best interests of religion. For jusSuch a policy appears to us to be demanded alike by tice would seem to require that unless a rigid observance of the rubrical law of the Church, or of recent interpretations of it, be equally exacted from all the from one party alone, and under circumstances which parties within her pale, it should no longer be exacted often increase the difficulty of complying with the

demand. And, having regard to the uncertainties which have been widely thought to surround some recent interpretations of ecclesiastical laws, as well as to the equitable claims of congregations placed in the most dissimilar religious circumstances, we can not but think that the recognized toleration of even wide diversities of ceremonial is alone consistent with the interests of true religion, and with the well-being of the English Church at the present time. The immediate need of our Church is, in our opinion, a tolerant recognition of divergent ritual practice; but we feel bound to submit to your Grace that our present troubles are likely to recur unless the courts by which ecclesiastical causes are decided in the first instance, and on appeal, can be so constructed as to secure the conscientious obedience of clergymen who believe the constitution of the Church of Christ to be of divine appointment, and who protest against the state's encroachment upon rights assured to the Church of England by solemn acts of Parliament. We do not presume to enter into details upon a subject confessedly surrounded with great difficulties, but content ourselves with expressing an earnest hope that it may receive the attention of your Grace and of the bishops of the Church of England.

The archbishop replied to the memorial by republishing a letter which he had previously addressed to Canon Wilkinson, in which he said:

It is a peculiarity of the present troubles that the clergymen who have fallen under the penalties of the law, in a way we all much regret, have come under the authority of the Provincial Courts of Canterbury and York, as the result of their having positively refused to conform to the admonition of their bishops; and, indeed, so far as I know, no case of prosecution for ritual has (at least for many years past) been allowed to proceed in the case of any clergyman who was willing to comply with such admonition. It certainly may fairly be taken to show that there must be some exceptional difficulty in present arrangements when clergymen of otherwise unimpeachable character think it their duty to run the risk of having their usefulness in their parishes rudely interrupted by the authority of the law rather than yield to those set over them in the Lord that degree of willing obedience which seems to most men to be enjoined alike by the traditions of their Church and the written words of the prayer-book (in the preface, "Concerning the service of the Church"), as well as by their promise of

canonical obedience. I am quite sure may undertake for my brethren of the Episcopate that we are ready very carefully to consider at the present juncture the grounds which appear to have led to so

strange a result.

The archbishop alluded to a petition embodying the views of the memorialists, which had been presented to convocation in 1877, referred to a committee, and reported upon by the same in 1879, and promised to call the attention of convocation to the report and the subject as soon as the forms of that body would allow. A memorial signed by several dignitaries of the Church, among whom were Bishops Perry and Ryan, and the Deans of Exeter, Carlisle, Ripon, Chester, Gloucester, Peterborough, and Canterbury, was afterward presented to the archbishop, opposing the memorial of the Dean of St. Paul's and others. The signers of this address said:

We have no desire to narrow the comprehensiveness of the national Church, or to abridge that reasonable liberty which has always been conceded to churchmen in matters non-essential. We are, however, firmly convinced that neither in public prayer nor in admin

istration of the sacraments ought there to be granted any toleration of the use of vestments and symbols avowedly introduced as exponents of doctrines which we believe to be unscriptural, or which had been declared to be not in accordance with the plain intention of the articles and formularies of the Church of England. We therefore respectfully but firmly entreat your Grace to give no countenance to any attempt to procure toleration for ritual practices, which for more than three hundred years, and until a very recent date, were almost unknown to the Church of England, and which, when submitted to the highest courts, have been declared to be contrary to the laws of the Church of the realm.

The archbishop, presenting the matter of these memorials before the Convocation of Canterbury, at its meeting February 8th, remarked that there seemed to be a certain indefiniteness about those addresses which asked for a greater amount of liberty in the matter of ritual, and it seemed to have been overlooked that, while there was an innocent liberty, there was a liberty which degenerated into license. He had no reason, however, to believe that those who had asked this had any desire for the use in the Church of England of any form of the Roman Catholic communion which might be identified with the profession of Roman Catholic customs. The bishops in their dioceses, under whose jurisdiction these matters came, would not, he supposed, be disposed to interfere with lawful ornamental ritual not contrary to the doctrines and principles of the Church of England; and he also supposed that the law was now so interpreted that great discretion was shown to be left to their lordships as to whether or not prosecutions or suits against clergy in ritual matters should proceed; so that now the bishops could refuse to sanction a mere vexatious attempt to interfere with a worship which approved itself to the parishioners, and was not contrary to law. He did not think that any more than this should be claimed, and it could not be expected that there would be any legislation in the direction of legalizing those things which the Reformation had abolished. The convocation suggested a reference of the subject to a royal commission, and advised that authority be given to the bishops to settle difficulties that might arise, and that they exercise such authority discreetly and kindly.

A memorial signed by nearly twenty-four thousand laymen was presented to the Archbishop of Canterbury, April 2d, entering the solemn and emphatic protest of the memorialists against the toleration, within the Church of England, of any doctrines or practices favoring the restoration of the Roman Catholic mass or any colorable imitation thereof, any reintroduction of the confessional, or any assumption of sacerdotal pretensions on the part of the clergy in the ministration of the Word and sacraments.

The public attention was kept fixed upon the ritualistic controversy by the proceedings in the courts in cases of ritual, by the fact of the imprisonment of clergymen who had been adjudged guilty of contumacy in violating the

law of ritual and in disregarding the inhibitions of the courts, by the protests of the friends of the imprisoned clergymen against their imprisonment, by agitations for their release, and by appeals to the public, the bishops, and the civil officers, in their behalf. The Rev. T. P. Dale, of St. Vedast's, London, and the Rev. W. R. Enraght, of Holy Trinity, Bordesley, had been imprisoned in 1880 for disregarding monitions which had been served upon them by the Court of Arches, ordering them to relinquish certain practices which had been declared illegal by the Privy Council. They both refused to submit to the decree of the court, declaring that they could not do so without violation of conscience. Mr. Dale took an appeal, and was released pending the hearing of the appeal, promising as a condition of his freedom that he would not conduct services in his church, nor even attend the church on Sunday. A release was offered to Mr. Enraght on the same conditions, but he refused to accept it, on the ground that to do so would involve his obedience to the inhibition of Lord Penzance, a condition under which he would not rest for a longer or a shorter period, for it was the very ground of the contention. The Bishop of Worcester was requested in January to take some steps to induce Mr. Enraght to amend his conduct or resign his appointment as an alternative to the bishop's taking a decided course to uphold the authority of the Ecclesiastical Court. The bishop replied that he could see no reason to hope for such an end to the troubles as his correspondent desired. The vicar had publicly declared his rejection of all direction or control or advice from the bishop, and the latter was not aware of any power vested in a bishop by which he could uphold the authority of the Ecclesiastical Court. Mr. Enraght was released from jail on account of the detection of an error in the manner in which the writ against him had been dealt with in the temporal court. Another order for his imprisonment was subsequently asked for, but he having taken an appeal to the House of Lords, judgment on the application was postponed. The appeal of Mr. Dale was dismissed; but that clergyman having accepted an incumbency outside of London, no further proceedings were had against him.

The case of the Rev. S. F. Green, of Miles Platting, Manchester, attracted more interest than any other, and was the incident to which the agitations of the year most directly related. Ritualistic practices were already observed in his church when he took charge of it, and he introduced others, with the approval of his patron and a majority of the congregation. A prosecution was instituted against him at the instance of the Church Association; he was tried in the Court of Arches, inhibited, and assessed in costs. He refusing to pay the costs or obey the inhibition, a bailiff was lodged in his house. Afterward, on the 9th of March, a writ de contumace was issued against him, and VOL. XXI.-2 A

he was imprisoned in Lancaster Castle. Application for a writ of habeas corpus with a view to his discharge was refused by the Court of Queen's Bench, April 6th. An appeal was taken to the House of Lords and was dismissed, while the judgment of the Court of Arches was sustained.

Mr. Green's case was taken up by the English Church Union, which represented that the penalties to which he was subjected were inflicted upon him because he obeyed his conscience. It was said on behalf of the courts and the Church authorities that he could be released at any time upon his simply promising to obey the writ of inhibition and to desist from unlawful practices. The case was brought directly before the Convocation of Canterbury at its session in July, when, an articulus cleri having been adopted by the Lower House, asking the bishops to consider what measures could be taken with propriety to secure the release of Mr. Green, the archbishop said that Mr. Green was in prison for refusing to obey the law, and he did not see how such a case could injure the Church.

Mr. Green's counsel, Mr. Phillimore, published a statement in August respecting his client's position, representing that the court for contempt of which he was punished was one that had been set up by Parliament only, without the approval of the clergy in convocation, and in the absence of any body through which the laity could make themselves heard — a wholly secular, in no way spiritual authority, an authority of a kind which he could not conscientiously allow to control him in the exercise of a purely spiritual function. To comply with the terms named as the conditions on which he could be released, would be to give up his office and cease from ministering, at the command of this secular authority-a thing he could no more do than the ancient martyrs could abjure their religion to avoid death. The Archbishop of York wrote to Mr. Green in August, suggesting to him as a way in which he might obtain his release and perhaps save future deplorable embarrassment without making or causing any sacrifice of principles on either side, that he might write to his bishop and express his readiness to abide by his superior's advice in the matters about which the suit had arisen; adding that—

It might be that the advice given would be such that your undertaking to act upon it would give the court an opportunity of relieving you from your present position, and that a clergyman could never reproach himself for having done that which his very ordination vows made a duty.

Mr. Green replied that to act as the archbishop suggested would be to adopt precisely the course which he had rejected, he believed on good grounds, two years before, and the reasons now were as ten to one why he should not do so. To surrender in the way his Grace suggested—

Would be simply to surrender the Prayer-Book.

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The archbishop, publishing the result of this correspondence, expressed regret at the want of success of his attempt to secure Mr. Green's release, but did not think that the attempt had been wholly in vain, for it had proved to him, he said,

That the cell from which we should be glad to lead him (Mr. Green) forth is locked on the inside. Mr. Green will not accept the ruling of the archbishop's court, nor the opinion of the assembled bishops of the Anglican communion throughout the world, nor the resolutions of convocation, nor the determination of his own bishop, nor the invitation of the archbishop of the province. So long as this attitude is preserved, I do not see any further means that can be adopted to

effect his much-desired release.

A systematic agitation was organized by the English Church Union, to be promoted by public meetings held under the direction of the district and branch unions, and the circulation of petitions for Mr. Green's unconditional re

lease.

A general meeting under the direction of the English Church Union, appointed to be held in connection with the Church Congress, was held at Newcastle-on-Tyne, October 5th, Mr. C. L. Wood, president of the union, presiding. Addresses were made defining and defending the position of the union and of the friends of Mr. Green; and a letter was read from the imprisoned clergyman, in which he

said:

If any one asked me why I was here, I should reply,For the kingdom of Jesus Christ." It is the honor of the Church for which we have been content to strive, and, by God's help, hope to continue to strive as long as life shall last. The awful insult of fered to the Church by the Public Worship Regulation Act is such as will not be endured by the humblest sect in the land. That a Parliament, not even professing to be Christian, should set up a court and prescribe rules for the worship and discipline of the Church of God, is going, to my mind, beyond the endurable.

Resolutions were adopted thanking Mr. Green for refusing to acknowledge the authority of the Privy Council and the courts subject to its jurisdiction in matters touching faith and worship; denying-while the duty of submission to the canonical orders of the bishop was recognized the canonical authority of episcopal directions avowedly controlled by and based upon the decisions of the judicial committee as overriding the inherent discretion of the episcopate, and declaring that no change in the ecclesiastical courts could be acquisced in which did not restore the final determination of spiritual matters to the bishops and synods. A bill, called the Ecclesiastical Courts Regulation Bill, was introduced in the House of Lords, with especial reference to the case of Mr. Green. It proposed the amendment of the act of 1813 and of "Thorogood's act" of 1840,

providing for the release of a prisoner incarcerated under a writ de contumace at the expiration of six months, with the consent of the other parties to the suit, by omitting the proviso requiring the consent of the other parties. The Archbishop of Canterbury supported this bill on its second reading in August, but said there would be a difficulty in applying it satisfactorily, because it would be hard to keep a gentleman like Mr. Green from getting into prison again after he was discharged. The Lord Chancellor, remarking that Mr. Green was charged with no fewer than eleven acts of disobedience, said that in fact that gentleman would appear to be of the opinion that no obedience was due from him in matters of ceremonial to any decisions of the ecclesiastical courts. Under the bill now before their lordships, the person proceeded against might be imprisoned for six months over and over again

until he ceased to be contumacious. That

would require amendment.

A committee of ritualists, selected on account of the attention they had paid to the subject, held a series of conferences on the Prayer-Book and its rubrics, and for the discussion of ritual conformity during 1880 and 1881, and published its report in September, 1881. The promoters of this step admitted that it had become apparent that the ritualistic movement, in the absence of any system of rules, had resulted in the introduction of a great diversity of practice, and that some of the clergymen, in the excess of their zeal, had adopted usages which could not be justified by any reference to the Prayer-Book; and it was believed that if the whole subject were revised in a scholarly manner, and if what could be supported by appeal to the Prayer-Book were exactly defined, a standard of extreme ritual might be fixed, under which uniformity of practice would be promoted, the irritation and friction felt in the Church would be diminished, a fair trial of the Prayer-Book, as the ritualists understood it, would be had on its own merits, and the advance of liturgical revision would be sped. The report of the committee embodies the results of its inquiries into the true meaning of the rubrics, deals with cases where a conflict of rubrics exists, and decides in some instances that certain practices which have been insisted upon are not sustained with sufficient clearness, and ought to be abandoned or modified.

The English Church Union returned in its reports for 1880, 19,410 members, showing an increase during a year of 1,684 members; six new district unions and 264 new branches had been organized. The income of the union had been $24,970. The report said, referring to the results of the prosecutions of clergymen for alleged illegal practices, "The apparent want of success which has attended the defensive efforts to maintain the civil rights of the persecuted clergy should not be regarded with feelings of despondency."

ANTHROPOLOGY. The discovery of stone implements in gravel-beds in the bluffs of the Delaware River, near Trenton, New Jersey, raised an interesting question as to the antiquity of man in America, since these gravel deposits were believed to have been formed by glacial action. The discovery of a few human bones in Pliocene deposits on the Pacific coast was the only evidence of the extreme antiquity of the human race upon this continent before the finding of these relics in the Trenton gravels, to which attention was first called by Dr. C. C. Abbott. The genuineness of those Pliocene remains is, however, anything but well established. The inter-glacial paleoliths of the Delaware Valley are rude celts of argillite. They differ distinctly from the implements left by the Indians here and in other parts of the country; yet nearer the surface, and occasionally upon the surface, in the same region they are found among flint weapons of the Indian type. Morgan and other American archæologists have concluded that the Indians reached the Atlantic coast from the interior, and that their original seats were near the Pacific. It must be inferred that they encountered and expelled another race, who had dwelt there since the formation of these gravel deposits. There is historical evidence of a race of different ethnological characteristics from the redmen inhabiting this part of the Atlantic seacoast in the sagas of the Icelandic colonists of Greenland, relating to their visits to Vinland in the eleventh century. The Skrællings, found by the Northmen in New England, have been identified by most certain indications in their descriptions with the Esquimau race, and were called by the same name in the chronicles. The Northmen first met the Esquimaux low down on the Atlantic coast. Three centuries later they appeared in large numbers in Greenland, and the severe conflicts which took place between the colonists and these invaders were probably the reason why the Greenland settlements were finally abandoned. The migration of the Esquimaux to the north ward, evidenced by these events, was doubtless caused by the pressure of the Indians behind them, who in more recent times have encroached upon the Esquimaux in British America.

Weapons of a ruder type than the flint, quartz, and jasper arrow and spear heads, of many different patterns, attributed to the Indians, have been found near the surface, not only in the Delaware Valley, but in New England and elsewhere in the Eastern States. They are always large, rudely-fashioned celts of nearly uniform pattern, much weather-worn, and made of argillite, thus corresponding in all particulars with the implements of the Trenton gravel-beds. These paleolithic weapons, even in the absence of historical evidence, could be attributed with good reason to the Esquimaux, as being the only race living in the earlier stone age found in an accessible region. They are

quite similar to implements still made by the Esquimaux.

There was less difficulty in connecting the Delaware flints with the Esquimau race than in accepting them as evidence of glacial or preglacial man, though found buried in what was supposed on good evidence to be glacial drift. The special study of this formation made by Henry Carvill Lewis has led to conclusions which remove this difficulty. Mr. Lewis says that the implement-bearing gravel is the most recent formation except recent alluvium, and much later than the Philadelphia brick-clay and red gravels which were deposited at the melting of the great glacier. It extends up the valley of the Delaware to the Water-Gap, and is of fluvial origin, marking the former bed of the river. It bears marks of iceaction, which must be ascribed to a second (more recent) glacier, whose flood cut a channel through the deposits of the first glacial period. The date of this smaller glacier corresponded approximately to the Reindeer period of Europe. The implements found in this gravel, which is the most recent of nine gravel and clay deposits in the Delaware Valley, are unquestionably of the same age as the formation, indicating the existence of man at the time when the floods of the river covered this gravel, which is far above the present river-bed. This period Mr. Lewis proposes to call the Esquimau period.

The recent measurements of African skulls by M. Hamy show that the races of that continent are not as universally dolichocephalous as has been supposed. He distinguishes between two distinct types of cranial formation in the negro races, and between forms within these ranging from the sub-brachycephalic through the mesocephalic and the sub-dolichocephalic to the true dolichocephalic. The dwarf race north of the equator, described by Schweinfurth and Miani (see AKKAS), has been studied by M. Hamy, who does not find their skulls less arched than those of the rest of mankind. Their stature is greater than that of the Bushmen, and is about the same average as the Andaman-Islanders. Their horizontal cephalic index approaches the true brachycephalous ratio. The Noubas, Fourahs, Gallas, and NiamNiams, and the Haoussas, who dwell west of Lake Tchad, and are separated from the above peoples by a population craniologically distinct, he classes together in a single race.

Fossil evidence of the semi-human transitional stage in the development of the human species may be claimed to be afforded by a human jaw-bone found in the Schipka Cave in Moravia, with bones of the mammoth, and rude palæoliths. It is a fragment of the lower jaw, containing the incisors, an eye-tooth, and two premolars, with the last three back teeth just emerging from the bone. It is therefore a child's skull, in the stage of development belonging to the eighth year. Yet the size of the jaw and the teeth is that of an adult. The

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