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and anomaly only are commonly perceived. The new order is the happy welding of these together, and in it the fulfillment of Christ's prophecy of the coming of the Comforter is to be sought. Christ is not held to be divine, as in the orthodox churches of Christianity, but is regarded with great reverence and devotion as a prophet, and is allowed a subjective not an objective divinity. God is believed in as an objective reality, a supreme Father, whose character of divine holiness worshipers aim to assimilate and realize in their hearts. Communion is sought to be promoted with prophets and departed saints, who are supposed to be real persons and children of God, by the so-called pilgrimages, in which a particular room represents the historical site, and conversations are carried on, by the aid of a vivid imagination, with the person invoked, whose utterances of centuries ago, says Dr. William Knighton, in the "Contemporary Review," "are applied, more or less skillfully, to the exigencies of the present time, or the difficulties of existing theological speculation." The spirits are not supposed to be materialized or actually present, but to be spiritually drawn into the life and character of the devotee; the pilgrimages being explained to be simply practical applications of the philosophy of subjectivity." The believer may be aided by the perusal of the sacred books of the several religions, by studying the precepts and examples, and absorbing the spirit of which he is believed to be brought into communion with the authors of those religions, or to have "conferences" with them. The immortality of the soul is taught, with the idea that the future life is a continuation and development of the present life. The incarnation of Deity is denied, but all the great teachers of religion, from Moses to Mohammed, are recognized as God's servants and as useful teachers. A violation of duty is sin, and every sinner must suffer the consequences of his own sinfulness, in this world or the next. Holiness may be attained, however, and sinfulness extirpated by the worship of God, by self-control and self-denial, by repentance, by the study of God in nature and in good books, by good company, and by solitary contemplation; and by these means salvation is attained. No mediation between God and man is suggested. Salvation brings with it a perpetual growth in purity, which goes on for all eternity. The New Dispensation is openly and fearlessly declared to be the work of God and not of man, a beautiful symmetrical plan of providence in a course of daily development, which provides an infallible remedy for human wants and short-comings; a system of Divine eclecticism, absorbing all religions, incorporating in itself all the prophets of God."

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Among the peculiarities of ritual of the New Dispensation are the Arati ceremony, with which the flag was inaugurated, and which has been criticised as savoring of idolatry; and the sacramental ceremony, in which rice and water

are substituted for the ordinary bread and wine. The "vow of self-surrender" is taken by persons who enroll themselves in the order of "Grihastha Vairagi," or ascetic householders-men of the world who, following secular employments, give all they make to the church. The singing of hymns from door to door, for the benefit of the worldly-minded, which was formerly confined to the lower classes of people, has been commended under the New Dispensation to the middle and upper classes as an 66 exalted work."

The fifty-first anniversary of the Brahmo Somaj was celebrated by the adherents of the New Dispensation in a series of meditative and mystic ceremonies, which, with the days of preparation, occupied most of the month of January. A portrait of Ram Mohun Roy was unveiled. Five missionaries were consecrated to a life in which they were told they would be wholly under the guidance of Heaven, and would find themselves always in a state of complete harmony with each other, drawing their inspiration from the Almighty alone, who would speak to and through them. The report for the past year mentioned as its peculiar, pre-eminent feature, the "communion with saints," which was observed by eight pilgrimages of the missionaries and other Brahmos to the house of the minister (Mr. Sen), with honors to the following saints: Moses, February 22d; Socrates, March 7th; Sakya, March 14th; Mohammed, September 19th; Chaitanya, September 26th; scientific men, October 3d. An average of one hundred students had attended the theological institution. Fifteen missionaries had been employed in Calcutta and six in Dacca, besides fourteen secular missionaries. Thirteen somajes had been established, and the flag of the New Dispensation had been carried all around India. A letter was read from the Prarthana Somaj, of Bombay, expressing the hope that all schism might be healed, and that there might be a united theistic church in India, which was suitably responded to. Steps were taken to publish a reply to misrepresentations which, it was alleged, had been made of the Brahmo Somaj in India and England. The missionaries were given the distinctive title of Sraddheya Bhai, or Reverend Brother. A sacramental ceremony was celebrated on the 6th of March. On the 7th of June "a new Hom ceremony,' or fire-sacrifice, was celebrated as the " ceremony of overthrowing temptation," and was followed on the 12th by a "new baptismal ceremony," in which it was claimed that "the rite was administered by John the Baptist himself, who was present in spirit."

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A considerable majority of the Brahmo Somajes, including one hundred and forty churches in different parts of India, from Assam to Sinde, and from Lahore to Madras, adhere to the old order, and either oppose the New Dispensation or hold aloof from it. The chief of these societies is the Sadharan (or Univer

sal) Brahmo Somaj of Calcutta, which has also many members among the provincial somajes, and has regular agents in various parts of India. Its aims are stated in its annual report to be, first, "to develop within itself and encourage in others a life of piety, based upon direct and immediate communion with the living God; to promote absolute spiritual freedom by combating all doctrines of incarnation, mediation, or prophetship; to build morality and piety on foundations of reason and conscience, illumined by the light of divine intercourse; and to strive for a life in which devotion and earnest work will commingle"; and, secondly, to introduce a constitutional and representative mode of church government. The declaration of principles, read at the dedication of the church in Calcutta in January, enforced the worship of the One True God, to the exclusion of every created person or thing, and of divine honors "to any man or woman as God, or equal to God, or an incarnation of God, or as appointed of God"; the renunciation of distinctions of caste or social position; the catholicity of Brahmoism ("no book or man shall be acknowledged as infallible, and the only way to salvation; but, nevertheless, due respect shall be paid to all scriptures, and the good and great of all ages and countries"); and the maintenance of spirituality of doctrine. "Flowers, spices, burnt-offerings, candles, and other material accompaniments of worship," it said, "shall never be used, and care shall be taken to avoid everything tending to reduce religion to mere parade and lifeless forms. . . . Anything that will directly or indirectly encourage idolatry, engender superstition, take away spiritual freedom, lower conscience, or corrupt morals, shall never be countenanced." The Sadharan Brahmo Somaj sends missionaries over India, sustains societies for religious culture among the students of Calcutta, and maintains a theistic library and a school for the higher education of boys, with twenty teachers and 389 pupils, and labors by itself, and through associated societies of women, for the improvement of women. Among the reforms advocated by the theists of India, of whom both of these societies are branches, are the complete abolition of all caste restrictions; the abolition of the worship of deceased ancestors; a reform of the ceremonies usual at births, and at cremation; reform of marriage customs (which is pronounced equivalent to the reconstruction of Hindoo society); the promotion of female education and emancipation; the limitation of men to one wife; the removal of the prohibition against the marriage of widows, and social reform; the suppression of intemperance of all kinds; the promotion of education among the people; and the social and moral regeneration of India.

BRAZIL (IMPERIO DO BRAZIL). (For details relating to area, territorial divisions, population, etc., reference may be made to the "Annual Cyclopædia" for 1878.)

The Emperor is Dom Pedro II, born December 2, 1825; proclaimed April 7, 1831; regency until July 23, 1840; crowned July 18, 1841; married September 4, 1843, to Theresa Christina Maria, daughter of the late King Francis I of the Two Sicilies.

The Cabinet in 1881 was composed of the following ministers: Interior, Baron Homem de Mello; Justice, Councilor M. P. S. Dantas, Senator; Foreign Affairs, Councilor P. L. Pereira de Souza, Deputy; Finance, Councilor J. A. Saraiva, Senator, and President of the Council of State; War, Councilor Franklin Doria, Deputy; Navy, Councilor J. R. Lima Duarte, Deputy; Public Works, Commerce, and Agriculture, Councilor M. Buarque de Macedo,* Deputy.

The Council of State was composed of the following members in ordinary: The Princess Imperial, Donna Isabel; Prince Gaston d'Orléans, Count d'Eu; the Senators Viscount de Abaeté, Viscount de Muritiba, Viscount de Bom Retiro, Viscount de Jaguary, Viscount de Nictheroy, Viscount de Araxá, J. P. Diaz de Carvacho, and J. J. Teixeira, Vice-Admiral J. R. de Lamare; Dr. P. J. Soares de Souza; and of members extraordinary: Senators J. L. C. Paranaguá and M. P. S. Dantas; Councilors Martin Francisco, B. A. de M. Taques, and J. C. de Andrade; and Viscount de Prados.

The President of the Senate, which comprises 58 members elected for life, was Viscount de Jaguary; and the Vice-President, Count de Baependy.

The President of the Chamber of Deputies, with 122 members elected for four years, was Viscount de Prados; and the Vice-President, F. de Almeida.

The Presidents of the several provinces were as follows:

Alagoas...
Amazonas.
Bahia..
Ceará.
Espirito Santo..
Maranhão..
Goyaz
Matto-Grosso..
Minas-Geraes

Pará.
Parahyba.
Parana

Pernambuco
Piauhy

Dr. J. E. Ferreira Jacobina.
Dr. A. J. Furtado.

Senator J. L. C. Paranaguá.
Senator P. Leão Velloso.
Dr. M. A. Tostes.

Dr. J. A. Leite de Moraes.
Dr. P. S. Cincinato.

Colonel J. M. de Alencastro.

Senator J. F. Meirade Vasconcellos.
Dr. M. P. Souza Dantas Filho.

Dr. J. Ferreira Carneiro.

Dr. S. B. Pimentel.

Dr. J. A. de Azevedo Lima.
Dr. S. Q. de Moura.

Rio Grande do Norte... Dr. A. D. Satyro.

Rio de Janeiro..

Santa Catharina..
São Paulo...

São Pedro (Rio Grande
do Sul).
Sergipe....

Dr. Martinho A S. Campos.
Dr. J. R. Chaves.

Senator F. C. de Abreu e Silva.

Dr. F. P. Soares Brandão. Dr. H. M. Inglez de Sousa, The Archbishop of Bahia, the Rt. Rev. L. A. dos Santos (1880), is Primate of all Brazil; and there are eleven bishops: those of Pará, São Luiz, Fortaleza, Olinda, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, Porto Alegre, Marianna, Diamantina, Goyaz, and Cuyabá.

The Brazilian Minister Plenipotentiary and Envoy Extraordinary to the United States is

Died August 29, 1881. (See OBITUARIES, FOR IN.)

Councilor Lopes Netto (transferred from Montevideo in July, 1881); and the Brazilian ConsulGeneral at Baltimore (for the Union) is Senhor Salvador de Mendonça.

The United States Minister to Brazil is Hon. James Monroe (1881); and the United States Consul-General at Rio de Janeiro is Mr. Thomas Adamson. "We learn, with the greatest pleasure," writes a Rio journalist, referring to the appointment of Minister Monroe, and to the continuance of Mr. Adamson in the consulate-general, "that the Honorable James Monroe has been nominated by the President of the United States as representative of that great republic at the court of Brazil. Mr. Monroe will be no stranger in Brazil; he is already known here as a consul who discharged his important duties with zeal and integrity; and his precedents here afford the certainty that the United States will find in him a resident Minister in Brazil who will reflect honor on his native country. As regards the present United States consulategeneral at Rio de Janeiro, we are rejoiced to find that no change is contemplated in its occupancy by the gentleman who has so worthily discharged the duties thereof, and reformed it. As the New York correspondence says, Mr. Adamson is not popular among a certain class of American citizens here; but consuls, like ministers of state, who initiate and enforce necessary reforms, must count on having to endure much obloquy from the small but noisy class whose interests the reforms traverse. Still, every important American and other house, having business with the United States consulate-general here, will freely acknowledge that, in Mr. Adamson, we have had the best American Consul-General Rio has seen since the days of 'Honest James Monroe.'"

The actual strength of the army in 1880 was 15,304, of whom 1,743 were officers. The distribution of the several arms was as follows: Infantry-twenty-one battalions, eight garrison companies, and one depot company for drillservice; cavalry-five regiments, one squadron, and five garrison companies; artillerythree mounted regiments and five foot-battalions; sappers and miners, one battalion; gendarmes, 8,340, of whom 931 were at Rio de Janeiro. The National Guard had been disbanded, with a view to reorganization after the taking of the new census. Pursuant to the law of February 27, 1875, military service is obligatory for all Brazilian citizens; but numerous exemptions are admitted, and substitution is allowable. The period of service in the regular army is six years, and in the reserve three years. The regulation war strength was to be fixed at 32,000; and the strength in time of peace, although fixed at 13,000, is commonly in excess of that number. The navy, in 1880, consisted of nine steam ironclads, six steam corvettes, sixteen steam gunboats, six steam transports, and three sail of the line (one cor

vette and two smaller craft); with an aggregate of 3,758 men, and a total armament of 166 guns. The aggregate steam-power was 8,660 horses. Besides the vessels above enumerated, there were five iron-clad ships, one gunboat, one school-ship, and one brig for midshipmen, all without armament. The personnel of the navy consisted of 14 general staffofficers, 340 first-class officers, a sanitary corps 73 strong, 17 almoners, 88 accountants, 57 guardians, and 185 engineers; an imperial marine corps, 2,695 strong, a naval battalion of 286 men, and 1,229 apprentices; total, 4,984 men. An additional gunboat has been reported "in course of construction" for some years past; but mention must here be made of two important craft, officially described as follows: One of these, an ironclad of novel construction, contracted for in London in 1881, is to be 300 feet in length with 52 feet beam, and to carry four Armstrong twenty-ton, new pattern, breech-loading guns, mounted on two turrets arranged en échelon, and sufficiently far apart to avoid injury to one turret by the flash of the guns in the other. The lighter armament is to consist of six 44-inch guns and a signal-gun. The armor is to be steel-faced throughout; the armor-belt, of two strakes, 7 feet deep and varying in thickness from 10 to 11 inches; and the breastwork and turrets each 10 inches thick. The main-deck will be faced with 14-inch compound armor on a steel backinginch thick. The stem, stern, rudder, brackets, and tubes will be constructed of brass, while the hull will be double sheathed with wood and covered with Muntz-metal. Prominent among the advantages anticipated in this ironclad are: the protection of the magazines and the spaces beneath the breast work, fore and aft of which the armor-belt will pass inside and take the form of oblique armor; the diminution of weight consequent upon that arrangement, and the security against water lodging upon the inner protective deck in the event of piercing of the thin ends of the armor; and the use of the forced blast, with a horse-power readily increased from 6,000 to 8,000, and a speed of not less than 15 but susceptible of being accelerated to 164 knots an hour. Should the ship, on trial, fail by one quarter of a knot to make 15 knots, the builders will, by the terms of their contract, be held to forfeit £2,000; if by one half knot, £4,000; if by three fourths, £8,000; if by one knot, £16,000; if by 14 knot, £32,000: and should the speed fall short of 133 knots, the whole of the final installment, amounting to one sixth of the entire price, will be forfeited. Should the extreme draught of the ship, with 400 tons of coal and sea-going stores on board, exceed 20 feet, the forfeitures will be as follows: for an excess of 1 inch, £1,000; of 2 inches, £2,000; of 3 inches, £4,000; of 4 inches, £8,000; of 5 inches, £16,000; of 6 inches, £25,000; and of more than 6 inches, the entire final installment. Likewise, for an excess of one tenth

pound per horse-power over the consumption of fuel indicated by the builders for the trial trip of 6 hours at full speed, £2,000 will be forfeited; for two tenths, £4,000; for three tenths, £8,000; for four tenths, £16,000; for five tenths, £32,000. The ship is to be inclined, and her center of gravity ascertained in the usual way. Her metacentric height when loaded for sea is not to be less than 3 feet, and under no circumstances is it to be less than 2 feet; and by failure in any of these stipulations the contractors are to forfeit the final installment. The other new craft is an iron gunboat to be named Iniciadora, and the king-bolt of which was struck by his Majesty the Emperor on October 27, 1881, at the national arsenal of marine. This will be the first iron vessel built there. The dimensions and other details published were as follows: length, 117 feet; beam, 24 feet; depth of hold, 8 feet; draught, 5 feet; with a displacement of 200 tons, and engines of 260 horse-power, expected to give a speed of from 9 to 10 knots an hour. The vessel is to be double sheathed with wood and Muntz-metal; and the armament to consist of two cannons of 15 caliber at the bow and stern, with -inch steel plate casemates for protection against musketry; two machine guns and torpedo apparatus. Electric light will be used on board the Iniciadora, which is to have steel-wire schooner rigging, have capacity for one month's supplies for 60 men, and carry coal for 5 days. This gunboat is specially intended for river service.

The subjoined table of the latest official returns at hand from the Finance Department, being for the year 1877-'78, will serve to show the sources of the revenue and the branches of the expenditure, but not the real condition of Brazilian finances at the present time:

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imports were but $4,765,585 in 1880, against $4,900,163 in 1879. Hence the actual increase of revenue from the customs department in 1880, as compared with 1879, was but $413,257. Much more favorable results were expected by the Government from the tariff which went into operation on January 1, 1880; but economists foresaw that a measure so unsatisfactory to the commercial community could hardly prove profitable to the treasury; for, although merchants had been requested to take part in the work of revising the former tariffs, their suggestions had only been regarded as worthy of consideration when favorable to increased rates of duty.* The new tariff undeniably made some improvements, such as the suppression of unnecessary distinctions and the approximation of official to market value; but, on the whole, the revision was performed too rapidly to admit of proper attention to fiscal conveniences. new revision was ordered toward the close of 1880, and the work intrusted to a committee composed wholly of government employés; but the expediency of submitting the result of their labors, when these should be terminated, for examination to a committee of merchants and another of manufacturers, was strongly urged by the public press.

A

The amount and branches of the national debt of Brazil were reported as follows on December 31, 1880: Foreign loan of 1852, due 1882.

.. 1858, * 1888.

£390,800

66

236,800

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65,749 14,155,169

762,417

Five per cent private loan.

521,860

8,270,171

Paper money..

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189,250,000

819,788,100+

A new loan of £5,000,000 was talked of in July as probable, and as necessary to permit the payment or funding of the existing floating debt.

In a report made in 1879 by the Minister of Finance, the total debt stood at 779,116,837 milreis $389,558,418.

The most recent complete official returns of the foreign commerce of the empire are those imports were, as stated in our volume for 1850, for 1878-79, in which year the exports and of the total values of $102,029,250 and $81,752,900 respectively.

The nature and value of the commodities

imported from Great Britain in 1880 were as shown in the subjoined table:

*See "Annual Cyclopædia" fcr 1880 and for 1878. + $74,832,800. + $409,866,550.

£3,337,525
123,024
81,224

Cotton manufactures...

Linen manufactures

Woolen and worsted manufactures..

Jute manufactures...

152,128

Hardware and cutlery.

274,099

Coal, coke, etc..

204,728

Earthenware.

Rails of all sorts.

Steam-engines.

Cast or wrought iron..

Machinery and mill-work.
Seed-oils....

Total........

112.260 145,029 105,582

228,408

171,759

34,927

£4,966,133 = $24,830,690

Against a total of £3,998,721 (= $19,993,605)

for the year 1879.

ing their present vantage-ground in the markets of the United States and of Europe. The Brazilian coffee-crops have of late years been abundant. Thus, as has been seen in the table last given, the crop of 1878 was 225,500,000 kilogrammes, or 496,100,000 pounds; that of 1878-79 was rather smaller, 222,349,800 kilogrammes; that of 1879-'80, still smaller, was 174,543,480; while, on account of 1880-'81, for the first six months, ending on December 31, 1880, there had already been shipped 142,622,820 kilogrammes, or almost seven eighths

The imports from the same source for the of the entire quantity exported in the whole

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Judging from the total of the first of these two tables, that of the second would seem to foreshadow a considerable decrease for 1881 as compared with 1880.

Of all the Brazilian staples of export, coffee is by far the chief. With her 530,000,000* of shrubs, producing on an average 260,000,000 kilogrammes or 572,000,000 pounds annually, Brazil exports nearly one half of the entire quantity of coffee consumed in the world, her home consumption not exceeding 110,000,000 pounds. Her prodigious superiority over all the other coffee-growing countries individually and collectively may be seen by the following figures:

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of the year immediately preceding. It was regarded as probable that the crop of 1881-'82 would reach 3,000,000 bags of sixty kilogrammes each, or 180,000,000 kilogrammes = 426,000,000 pounds. "The year 1880 was not favorable to coffee exportation," observes a Rio journal. "The European markets remained apathetic during the first half-year, with prices constantly low, while in the United States the presence of large cargoes, presumed to be for account of the Brazilian Government, kept speculators away. At home, holders and buyers found it difficult to agree, as the latter could not go above certain limits in accordance with the situation of the markets the shipments were for; while the sackers, unwilling to sacrifice the article by selling at a low price, endeavored at all hazards to sustain their pretensions. In the last months of the year, when coffee fell considerably in the American markets, some New York and Boston merchants, unable to meet their losses thereby, suspended payments. But no unfavorable impression was felt at Rio; on the contrary, the fortnight in which the news of the failure was received was that of greatest sales here. In rum, the production has increased greatly, but the consumption has increased equally, and its use in the fabrication of liquors has of late been extensive. New means of transport have also assisted, by cheapening freight. Of the 15,000 pipes made in the provinces of Rio de Janeiro, about 9,000 proceeded from the Campos market. Pernambuco followed Rio in production, 9,000 pipes having been exported from Recife, and the home consumption being large. In Rio de Janeiro prices were forty per cent higher than at Pernambuco, preventing shipments thither. In tobacco the year 1880 was unprofitable, if not, indeed, one of the losses and liquidations for all the classes depending on the manufacture of Minas tobacco. The low

prices which prevailed almost unchanged throughout the year, despite a considerable decrease in the harvest, were attributed, by the parties interested, to the perturbation produced in commercial relations by the new taxes. But, while it is evident that the taxes contributed to the evils pointed out, it is no less so that the principal cause of the decline in prices to the point of being unremunerative consisted in the narrowness of the circle of foreign customers. And thus the three years of abundant

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