OYSTER-BEDS, DETERIORATION OF. 1,000 marketable ones that is, out of every Some efforts have been made to obtain data Lieutenant Winslow gives, as the result of his observations in 1879, that on a natural unworked bed the ratio of young oysters to those of mature age is as one to two, or where there are 1,500 oysters 1,000 would be matured and 500 young. Professor Brooks estimates the number of eggs voided by the American oyster at from 9,000,000 to 60,000,000; 10,000,The 1,000 000 may be taken as an average. mature oysters in the community would then spawn 10,000,000,000 eggs, and as the young European oyster has been found to spawn about one third as many as the mature animal, we may consider the same to be true for the American variety. The 500 young would then spawn 1,600,000,000 eggs, or the total number in the community would spawn 11,600,000,000 eggs, from which would result 500 oysters, or about 20,000,000 eggs or oysters would perish where one was preserved. Lieutenant Winslow's observations convince him that the beds of Pocomoke Sound at least are in a condition very similar to the French beds before they were subjected to the action of protective laws. As these have been made to yield again a profitable return, it may be well here to take note how protection is rendered effectual. The French Government assumes control of a bed is buoyed off each year, and dredged By these means the beds on the French coast have been much improved. It may be well to see how foreign experience can be utilized for our good in this matter. 3. The The deterioration of an oyster-bed and ite impaired fecundity will be shown in five several ways: 1. By the general appearance and condition of the beds and animals, the prevalence of mud and sand, the oysters being large and single, and the shells covered with worms, etc. 2. The ratio of young to mature oysters will be abnormally large or small. amount of débris in the bed will be very large (say as much as 50 per cent of the contents of the dredges). 4. The number of oysters on the beds will be found to decrease each year. 5. The discovery of unusual inhabitants of the beds other than oysters, or, in general terms, marked changes in the fauna of the beds, indicate deteriorations. In cases like these protection must be assured in order to prevent entire destruction. If deterioration is due to excessive fishery, that must be prohibited; but, as many of our poorer fellow-citizens find support in this industry, restriction manifestly must be used, not entire prohibition. The larger the area, of course the less exhaustive will be the fishery in any particular locality, for the fishermen will naturally leave old and worn-out beds and seek for those newly discovered and well stocked. Fortunately for us, the area covered by oysters along the coast of the United States is so great that at present when any bed or locality begins to fail the fishery is transferred to other points. This is shown by the fact that vessels have left the sounds and work now in the beds in Chesapeake Bay. In time, however, the entire areas will be known, and all future extension of the fishingground will be artificial in these areas. New beds will probably be found off the mouths of creeks or rivers, and not far from beds already known. The extension of old can be effected by depositing suitable "cultch" upon the bottom near the beds, so as to afford a place for the attachment of the drifting "spat." Stones, ballast, old shells, etc., make excellent cultch, which should be exposed late in the spring. A number of mature oysters being deposited with the shells, materially aid in extending the beds. As the consumption of the oyster is constantly increasing, any failure of supply will of course add to the price and induce exhaustive fishery; and in time it will become so great that strict protective laws, rigidly enforced, will be required in order to prevent the destruction of this branch of industry. Inasmuch as legislation on this subject will probably be needed ere long, Lieutenant Winslow suggests several points worthy of consideration. Organized and systematic efforts ought to be made to discover new beds and to extend the old ones. Experiments also, looking to the artificial cultivation of oysters,* ought to be made and continued. A fishery commission, composed of intelligent men, with PANAMA CANAL. The project of connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, by means of a tide-level ship-canal across the Isthmus of Panama, has been carried through its preliminary stages during the year, under the charter granted by the Colombian Government to a French company. The first constitutive meeting of the Interoceanic Canal Company, to which the grant of the original International Company (see "Annual Cyclopædia," 1878, title COLOMBIA) had been transferred, was held in Paris on the 31st of January, M. Ferdinand de Lesseps presiding. A report was submitted by M. de Lesseps, in which the impracticability of the rival Nicaragua scheme was dwelt upon, and it was stated that agreement with the United States authorities had been reached, subject only to the proviso that the neutrality of the canal should be assured. It was further stated that subscriptions had been received for 1,209,609 shares of the stock of the company, of which 994,458 were given in France. The entire capital would be 600,000,000 francs, one half of which would be covered by the issue of obligations, the other half being distributed in shares of 500 francs each. The report also . made known that seventy engineers, superintendents, and doctors had already been sent to the Isthmus, that steam-engines had been ordered, and that arrangements would be made for the employment of 8,000 laborers. A sec* See "Annual Cyclopædia," vol. xix (1879), p. 591. Р special knowledge on this subject, should be appointed; and a fishery-guard should be put under their control. This commission should endeavor to prevent exhaustive dredging; to secure the reservation of beds containing a large number of young growth; to put a stop to the removal of the young growth; to enforce the strict observance of the close times; to see that the beds are cleansed before the advent of the young brood; to have exposed suitable "cultch" when the bed has been long worked; and to destroy star-fish, drills, etc., that may exist on the beds. The following warning is given by Professor Möbius: "In North America the oysters are so fine and so cheap that they can be eaten daily by all classes; hence they are now, and have been for a long time, a real means of subsistence for the people. This enviable fact is no argument against the injuriousness of a continuous and severe fishing of the beds. . . . But as the number of consumers increases in America the price will also surely advance, and then there will arise the desire to fish the beds more severely than hitherto; and if they do not accept in time the unfortunate experience of the oyster-culturists of Europe, they will surely find their oyster-beds impoverished for having defied the bioconotic laws." ond constitutive meeting was held on the 3d of March. The report then made stated that there were 102,230 shareholders, and that the work would probably be completed in 1888. Borings and examinations which had been made showed that there would be from 73,000,000 to 75,000,000 cubic metres of earth to be removed. The estimated cost of excavation was 430,000,000 francs; construction of weirs and trenches to convey fresh water to the sea, 46,000,000 francs; and the establishment of a dock and tide-gates on the Pacific side, 36,000,000 francs making the total cost 512,000,000 francs. The contractors, Messrs. Couvreux and Hersent, whose operations were placed in charge of M. Blanchet, would begin the great cutting at Culebra by October, and, before the end of the year, work would be begun all along the line. At this meeting the company was unanimously declared to be definitely constituted. The engineers and others, who left Paris early in January, arrived at the Isthmus about the middle of February. M. Blanchet followed in April, for the purpose of pushing forward the surveys and examinations of the ground as rapidly as possible, and preparing for the work that was to follow. There were already seventeen brigades of surveyors in the field, and it was announced that the results of their examinations were so favorable that it was believed that the route would be somewhat shortened, and the time and expense necessary to carry out the undertaking would be less than had been estimated. There was more earth and less rock to be removed than had been supposed, and the rock was less difficult to deal with. In addition to the final surveys, much was accomplished in the way of collect ing machinery and supplies, establishing quarters for workmen, and getting laborers together. M. Blanchet succumbed to the climate and the effects of overwork, and died on the Isthmus in November. M. Roux, who was the chief in charge of the sounding and testing of the material to be excavated, returned to Paris in the autumn. The following extracts are from a statement made by him to a correspondent on the 23d of November: I find that from Colon to Tiger Hill the route adopt ed for the canal runs almost entirely through alluvial soil. Here and there you have volcanic tufa, however. From Tiger Hill to San Pablo we have conglomerate soil, clays, etc. Between San Pablo and Matachin wo come to the alluvial formation of the Chagres, whence for some distance the level of the district traversed is very little above that of the sea-twenty-five metres, or say eighty feet at most. At Matachin the canal will run through the most difficult part of the route. Here we have to do with solid rock-a most characteristic specimen of which is met with close to the cataract of the From Matachin to Rio Obispo. The rock is hardest just beyond the cataract-on the Panama side. Next comes more clayey tufa, overlying the dolorite of the Serro Culebra, the highest point on the canal route. Culebra the cuttings will be extremely deep-in parts as deep as eighty-seven metres (roughly three hundred feet), and hereabout we have been brought face to face with a most difficult problem-perhaps the most difficult we have had to deal with-what inclination should the canal-banks have? This point has had my most careful consideration. On a superficial view of the question it would seem natural to cut down in as nearly perpendicular a line as possible. Indeed, many engineers-some of them Americanspressed us for a summary settlement of the difficulty in that sense. It seemed to me, however, in the highest degree foolish and reckless to give so grave a matter a solution without previous investigation of the most serious kind. A perpendicular or nearly perpendicular cutting would, of course, have great advantages, if it could be made, for it is evident that the slightest additional inclination given to the banks must enormously increase the quantity of rock to be removed, and therefore the labor and expense. Nevertheless it was decided that the local formation should be examined minutely from the summit to the very bed of the projecte canal. I feared that the upper strata of rock might be found to rest on a rotten and unstable foundation. In reply to the suggestions made me I said, "Let us see whether this rock has a stable basis." In the sequel my doubts were shown to have been reasonable. At about one hundred feet from the rocky surface I came to tufa, which, though originally clayey, had gradually become sandy and aquiferous (sables agglutines and aquiferes). Now, had we listened to the advice of our over-ha-ty engineering friends and decided to eut straight banks, the superstratum of rocks, resting on a sandy foundation, must have fallen into the bed of the canal and blocked it. We shall therefore have to make the banks slope considerably. The Panama Canal Congress was much exercised by the numerous and periodic inundations of the Chagres. To oppose then it was suggested that an artificial barrage should be constructed at Gamboa. It has been proposed that the enormous amount of clay at Culebra should be transferred to Gamboa. Being water-tight, it would make an admirable barrier, and no masonry would be needed. The engineers incline to the idea of constructing a railroad, with at least eight parallel lines, close to the Culebra Mountain, and of shoveling the clay into the Chagres Valley. But to return to the canal route. From Culebra to Panama it will run through solid pyroxenic rock and sandstone tufa, such as you may see on the Bovedas promenade at Panama. have as yet not done very much. But the ground has As regards the actual execution of our plans, wo been thoroughly prepared, and we shall now go ahead fast. Operations have been begun on the Colon side of the Isthmus. The excavators are at work, and workshops have been erected for fitting together and repairing the immense quantity of machinery we have ordered. The excavators and drags selected by Messrs. Couvreux and Hersent are of the most powerful kind. The drags will be capable of removing from eighteen hundred to two thousand cubic metres of subaqueous alluvial matter daily. As regards the rock, my idea was to use the compressed-air perforators employed so successfully at Freggio, the Prato, the Mont Cenis, and the St. Gothard. Nothing is yet definitively settled about these perforators. We have not pierced through any rock. Up to the present we have been busied with preliminary investigations, soundings, hydrographic surveys, etc. M. Roux thought the work could be completed in seven years, but much depended on the health of the workmen. The climate was not so unfavorable as had been reported. Yellow fever was not epidemic on the Isthmus, though there were local fevers which were more or less dangerous, but not sufficiently prevalent or unavoidable to threaten serious embarrassment. There were at that time from 1,500 to 2,000 workmen in the employ of the company; the majority of them natives-negroes and Indians. There were also some blacks from Jamaica, some Chinese, and a number of Europeans. About the first of June a majority of the stock of the Panama Railroad Company was purchased by the canal company, and arrangements were made for absorbing the whole of it on certain terms, with the consent of the individual holders. The nominal amount of the stock of the railroad company was $7,000,000, but it had been paying a dividend of 20 per cent, and the shares had been quoted as high as $275. The total cost to the canal company of securing possession of the railway property was about $20,000,000. The prospect of a successful prosecution of the canal enterprise has raised the question of its relation to the public interests of various commercial nations. The original contract made by the Colombian Government with the Civil International Society of the Interoceanic Canal, whose rights and privileges have been transferred to the Interoceanic Canal Company,. contains the following provision, constituting Article V: "The Government of the republic declares neutral in all times the ports of both extremities of the canal and the waters of the latter from ocean to ocean; and consequently, in case of war between other nations, the transit through the canal will not be interrupted by this motive; the mercantile vessels and the people of all nations of the world will be permitted to enter the said ports without be 716 ing disturbed or detained. In general, every vessel may pass freely without any distinction, exclusion, or preference of nationalities or persons, on payment of the dues and under observance of the rules established by the privileged company for the use of the said canal and its dependencies. Exception is made of foreign troops, who may not pass without the permission of Congress, and ships of the nations at war with the United States of Colombia, who have not previously acquired the right of passage in all times by treaty stipulations guaranteeing the sovereignty of Colombia over the Isthmus of Panama and the territory where the canal is excavated, as well as the immunity and neutrality of the same canal, its ports, bays, dependencies, and adjacent seas. of the same contract declares that the grantees, " Article XXI or whoever in future may succeed to their rights, "may transmit them to other capitalists or financial societies, but it is absolutely forbidden to cede or hypothecate them to any foreign nation or government." this prohibition would forfeit all the rights A violation of granted. Article XXXV, of "a general treaty of peace, amity, navigation, and commerce between the United States and the Republic of New Granada," which was concluded at Bogota, December 12, 1846, ratifications of which were exchanged at Washington, June 10, 1848, which is still in force, runs as follows: The United States of America and the Republic of New Granada, desiring to make as durable as possible the relations which are to be established between the two parties by virtue of this treaty, have declared solemnly and do agree to the following points: For the better understanding of the preceding articles it is and has been stipulated between the high contracting parties that citizens, vessels, and merchandise of the United States shall enjoy in the ports of New Granada, including those of the portion of Granadian territory generally denominated the Isthmus of Panama, from its southernmost extremity until the boundary of Costa Rica, all the exemptions, privileges, and immunities concerning commerce and navigation which are now, or may hereafter be, enjoyed by Granadian citizens, their vessels, and merchandise; and this equality of favors shall be made to extend to the passengers, correspondence, and merchandise of the United States in their transit across the said territory from one sea to the other. The Government of New Granada guarantees to the Government of the United States that the right of way or transit across the Isthmus of Panama, upon any modes of communication that now exist or may be hereafter constructed, shall be open and free to the Government and citizens of the United States, and for the transportation of any articles of produce, manufactures, or merchandise of lawful commerce belonging to the citizens of the United States; that no other tolls or charges shall be levied or collected upon the citizens of the United States, or their said merchandise, thus passing over any road or canal that may be made by the Government of New Granada, or by authority of the same, than is, under like circumstances, levied upon and collected from the Granadian citizens; that any lawful produce, manufactures, or merchandise belonging to citizens of the United States thus passing from one sea to the other, in either direction, for the purpose of exportation to any other foreign country, shall not be liable to any import duties whatever, or, having paid such duties, they shall be entitled to drawback upon their exportation; nor shall the citisubjected for thus passing the said isthmus; but, in zens of the United States be liable to any duties, tolls, order to secure to themselves the tranquil and constant or charges of any kind to which native citizens are not enjoyment of these advantages, and as an especial compensation for said advantages, and for the favors they have acquired by the fourth, fifth, and sixth articles of this treaty, the United States guarantees positively to New Granada, by the present stipulation, the perthe view that the free transit from the one to the other fect neutrality of the before-mentioned isthmus, with sea may not be interrupted or embarrassed to any future time while this treaty exists; and, in consequence, the United States also guarantecs in the same New Granada has and possesses over the said terrimanner the rights of sovereignty and property which tory, etc. necessary also to recall the provisions of the and of the discussions relating thereto, it is For a better understanding of the subject, agreement between the United States and Great Britain, concluded April 19, 1850, and ratified the same year, known as the ClaytonBulwer treaty. One purpose of this compact tensions to possession or authority in Central was to secure a surrender of all British preconstruction of an interoceanic canal at NicAmerica. It was also intended to promote the aragua, to protect it when constructed, and to secure its neutrality. The two governments declared that "neither the one nor the other will control over the said ship-canal; agreeing that ever obtain or maintain for itself any exclusive tions commanding the same or in the vicinity neither will ever erect or maintain any fortificathereof, or occupy, or fortify, or colonize, or asCosta Rica, the Mosquito Coast, or any part of sume or exercise any dominion over Nicaragua, Central America." It was further agreed, in United States nor Great Britain would "take the first article of this treaty, that neither the advantage of any intimacy, or use any alliance, connection, or influence that either may pos whose territory the said canal may pass, for sess with any state or government through the purpose of acquiring or holding, directly or indirectly, for the citizens or subjects of the one, any rights or advantages in regard to commerce or navigation through the said canal which shall not be offered on the same terms to the citizens or subjects of the other.' visions follow defining the privileges which the engaging to protect any parties that might two governments shall have in case of war; undertake the construction of the canal under the authority of the local governments "from unjust detention, confiscation, seizure, or any influence to induce the governments having violence whatsoever "; and agreeing to use authority over the territory to be traversed "to facilitate the construction of the said canal by every means in their power," and to secure the establishment of a free port at each end of the said canal. The governments further agreed to protect the canal when completed, and to guarantee its neutrality, to the end free, and the capital invested therein secure." "that the said canal may for ever be open and Pro This protection might be withdrawn on six months' notice, in case the persons operating the canal made unfair discriminations against either party to the agreement, or imposed oppressive exactions or unreasonable tolls. The contracting parties further engaged "to invite every state with which both or either have friendly intercourse, to enter into stipulations with them similar to those which they have entered into with each other, to the end that all other states may share in the honor and advantage of having contributed to a work of such general interest and importance as the canal herein contemplated." They agreed, also, to enter into the necessary stipulations with Central American states for the promotion and safety of the enterprise, and promised to give their support and encouragement to such persons or company as should first offer to carry it out under certain specified conditions. All this related to a canal by way of Nicaragua; but in the eighth article of the treaty the two governments entered into the following stipulation: The Governments of the United States and Great Britain, having not only desired, in entering into this convention, to accomplish a particular object, but also to establish a general principle, they hereby agree to extend their protection by treaty stipulations to any other practicable communications, whether by canal or railway, across the isthmus which connects North and South America, and especially to the interoceanic communications, should the same prove to be practicable, whether by canal or railway, which are now proposed to be established by the way of Tehuantepec or Panama. In granting, however, their joint protection to any such canals or railways as are by this article specified, it is always understood by the United States and Great Britain that the parties constructing or owning the same shall impose no other charges or conditions of traffic thereupon than the aforesaid governments shall approve of as just and equitable; and that the same canals or railways, being open to the citizens and subjects of the United States and Great Britain on equal terms, shall also be open on like terms to the citizens and subjects of every other state which is willing to grant thereto such protection as the United States and Great Britain engage to afford. The attitude of the United States Government toward the Isthmus canal, in view of the provisions of these treaties and the presumed interests of the nation, has been the subject of much serious consideration during the year. President Hayes, in his last annual message, had reiterated the opinion that "it is the right and duty of the United States to assert and maintain such supervision and authority over any interoceanic canal across the isthmus that connects North and South America as will protect our national interest." In December, 1880, the following resolution was offered in the House of Representatives by Mr. Crapo, of Massachusetts, and referred to the Committee on Foreign Affairs: Resolved, That the construction of an interoceanic canal connecting the waters of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans by means of foreign capital under the auspices of or through a charter from any European government, is hostile to the established policy of the United States, is in violation of the spirit and declaration of the Monroe doctrine, and can not be sanctioned or assented to by this Government; that trol and supervision over any interoceanic canal as the United States will assert and maintain such conmay be necessary to protect its national interests and means of defense, unity, and safety, and to advance the prosperity and augment the commerce of the Atlantic and Pacific States of the Union. The committee gave the subject prolonged consideration, listening to arguments from various quarters, and, toward the end of the session, made a report, in which they reviewed the "Monroe doctrine" and its purpose and application, closing as follows: Your committee, therefore, as an affirmation of the Monroe doctrine, believe that Americans must rule United States, cherishing a friendly spirit to all naAmerica, and that as a notice to all the world that the tions, will adhere to strict neutrality in all transatlantic affairs, and expect a like non-interference in all American affairs, whether on the northern or southern or western hemispheres, we recommend the adop tion of the following resolutions: That the establishment of any form of protectorate by any one of the powers of Europe over any of the independent states of this continent, or the introduction from any quarter of a scheme or policy which would carry with it a right to any European power to interfere with their concerns or to control in any other manner their destiny, or the transfer to any such power by conquest, cession, or acquisition, or in any other way, of those states or any portion thereof, is a measure to which the Government is opposed, and which, should the attempt be made, it will regard and treat as dangerous to our peace, prosperity, and safety. That the construction of any public works connecting the waters of the Atlantic and Pacific by any European government or power, whether the same be constructed at Panama or elsewhere, would be in violation of the spirit and letter of the Monroe doctrine, and could not be sanctioned by the Government of the United States. That should a canal be constructed across the Isthmus of Panama, or elsewhere, this Government will insist that it shall not be under the control of any European government or power; that it shall be free to the commerce of the world, on equal terms, and that no discrimination shall ever be made against the United States in peace or war. That the President be requested to take the steps necessary and proper for the abrogation of any existing treaties whose terms are in conflict with this declaration of principles. The session came to a close without the adoption of this report, or any discussion of the resolution. Before the close of President Hayes's Administration, negotiations were opened by the Secretary of State with Santo Domingo Vila, a commissioner of the Colombian Government, for the adoption of a protocol to the treaty of 1846, with a view to securing the exercise of an exclusive guarantee of the neutrality of the canal by the United States. This instrument, which was reputed to be the work of Mr. Deichman, the American Minister to Colombia, and supposed to have the approval of the government to which he was accredited, provided that the United States might establish forts, arsenals, and naval stations at the Isthmus of Panama, the sites to be agreed upon by the two governments. No force was to be kept there in time of peace, except for the |