act. The point at issue, then, turns on the word “ guilty," and the question at once resolves itself to this, "Did Aaron Burr commit an overt act of treason, and were there two witnesses to the same act?" This puts the question in quite another light, and, as two witnesses to the same overt act of treason could not in Burr's case be produced, it becomes evident that Burr was not legally guilty of The determination of the point at issue in this case, therefore, leaves nothing to be argued. However, were the question changed to "Was Aaron Burr morally guilty of treason?" the point at issue would be changed, and there would be a chance for argument.

treason.

It is of the utmost importance, then, by careful analysis of the material in a debate, to determine at the start just what the point at issue is in each proposition, and, sweeping aside irrelevant matter of every sort, to make the argument on this point and this point alone. "Side issues" are certain roads to destruction.

Exercise 96

1. Define the terms in two of the propositions in the list at the end of this chapter.

2. Determine the point at issue in each of the two propositions studied for 1. Be sure that you understand the proposition, and know pretty well the proofs on each side of the question, before you attempt to determine the point at issue.

SECTION 83

The Proofs

After you have determined the point at issue, so that your efforts in debate may not be misdirected, you need reasons to prove that the proposition you are debating is

either true or not true. These reasons are called proofs. Proofs may be either specific facts or general truths, provided only that they help to convince your readers or hearers that what you say is true.

Let us suppose, for instance, that you have been observing the habits of earthworms, and have occasion to prove to a friend, who knows little about them, that earthworms cannot hear. You tell him, first, that the worms you experimented with took no notice whatever of the shrill notes from a metal whistle, which you repeatedly sounded near them. This fact you urge in support of your statement that earthworms cannot hear. It is a reason assigned to support the truth of your proposition. It is a proof brought forward to convince your friend that what you say about earthworms is true. If your friend is still unconvinced, you bring forward other facts, other reasons, other proofs, to support your statement that earthworms cannot hear. You tell him, further, that the worms took no notice of the deepest and loudest tones of the bassoon, that they were indifferent to shouts, and that, when placed on a table close to the keys of a piano, which was played as loudly as possible, they remained perfectly quiet. You have now offered no less than four separate reasons or proofs to support your statement about earthworms, and your argument, written out, takes some such form as this:

EARTHWORMS CANNOT HEAR

[Proposition.] Worms do not possess any sense of hearing. [Proof 1.] They took not the least notice of the shrill notes from a metal whistle, which was repeatedly sounded near them; [Proof 2.] nor did they of the deepest and loudest tones of the bassoon. [Proof 3.] They were indifferent to shouts, if care was taken that the breath did not strike them. [Proof 4.] When placed on a table close

to the keys of a piano, which was played as loudly as possible, they remained perfectly quiet.-DARWIN, Vegetable Mould and Earthworms.

This of course is one of the briefest and simplest of arguments, but it illustrates well enough what proofs are and how they are to be used to support the truth of a proposition.1 A longer and more complex argument would be essentially the same as this argument, except that, having more proofs, you would need to give more thought to their ordering, a matter that will be treated in the next section. The main thing here and now to remember, in this matter of proofs, is that proofs must be real proofs and not mere assertions. Saying a thing is so does not prove it to be so. Scan as severely as you know how, therefore, all facts and seeming truths that you bring forward as proofs. Beware especially of prejudices of every sort, of drawing too large a conclusion from your observations,2 of drawing any conclusion at all when your observations are too few or too hastily made to warrant one, of accepting as true everything you read and everything other people tell you, of making guesses at reasons without making experiments to test the truth of your guesses, and of mistaking something that merely happens to follow for something that can only be the result of the careful working out of very definite causes,3-errors frequently made by loose reasoners and careless thinkers.

Exercise 97

Point out the proposition and the proofs in each of the following brief arguments. Note particularly the value and the order of the

1 Proofs include disproofs, also, - facts and truths brought forward to refute the points urged by an opponent.

2 Note the lesson taught by the first paragraph quoted in Exercise 97. 8 See Section 98 (2).

proofs, and, if you can, distinguish the different kinds of arguments. In preparing your lesson, you may find it helpful to draw up an outline or a brief of the argument in each paragraph (see the brief in Section 84):

MORE ABOUT EARTHWORMS

In the first place 227 withered leaves of various kinds, mostly of English plants, were pulled out of worm-burrows in several places. Of these, 181 had been drawn into the burrows by or near their tips, so that the footstalk projected nearly upright from the mouth of the burrow; 20 had been drawn in by their bases, and in this case the tips projected from the burrows; and 26 had been seized near the middle, so that these had been drawn in transversely and were much crumpled. Therefore 80 per cent (always using the nearest whole number) had been drawn in by the tip, 9 per cent by the base or footstalk, and 11 per cent transversely or by the middle. This alone is almost sufficient to show that chance does not determine the manner in which leaves are dragged into the burrows. - Darwin, Vegetable Mould and Earthworms.

HELPS TO STUDY: Where does the proposition stand in this paragraph, at the beginning or at the end? Where does it stand in the paragraph quoted in Section 83? Can you think of any reason for the difference? What is the meaning of "induction"? Of "deduction"? Which order is to be preferred for creating suspense? For allaying prejudice? What caution has Darwin shown in drawing his conclusion? Would it be quite honest to draw a larger conclusion from the same observations? What of the number of observations? Were the observations carefully made?

DID THE GREEKS UNDERSTAND ATHLETICS?

Though extraordinary feats were sometimes recorded, I believe that the Greeks did not understand athletics at all so well as the English do. Two facts may be mentioned in proof of this. The runners are said to have started shouting. The boxers, who had their fists weighted with loaded leather gloves, swung round at one another's ears, instead of striking straight home. What we hear about their training seems equally stupid; their trained men are described as generally sleepy, they fed on enormous quantities of

meat, and were obliged to swear that they had spent ten months in training before the games. Good generals, such as Alexander and Philopomen, discountenanced athletics as producing bad soldiers. But, nevertheless, the combination of art contests with athletics made the Greek meetings finer and more imposing than ours. — MAHAFFY, Old Greek Life, 77.

Exercise 98

1. Copy and bring to the class the three paragraphs in George Eliot's Silas Marner, chap. vi, beginning with, "Ay, but there's this in it, Dowlas,' said the landlord," etc. Is the reasoning conclusive? Do you sometimes hear talk like this? Write out one such talk, if you can remember the gist of the reasoning, and try to find in some short story or novel another passage illustrating some common error in reasoning.

2. In ancient times physicians sometimes treated a wound by applying an ointment to the weapon that inflicted it. This weapon was dressed carefully and at regular intervals, but the wound was left to take care of itself. Many cures followed upon this treatment. Now, did the cures follow because of the treatment? Do you have good luck because you find a four-leaved clover, or because you hang a horseshoe over your door? Do you have bad luck because you do something on a Friday? Does such and such weather follow because a ring appears around the moon? Give other examples of this sort of error.

3. Make a list of ten subjects in regard to which you have not observed enough facts to warrant drawing a conclusion. The list in Exercise 12 (1) may be suggestive.

4. What conclusions is it safe to draw from the following statements? (1) The ground is wet. Therefore (2) Every mistake is not a proof of ignorance. (3) A penny saved is a penny got. (4) A dog's life, hunger and ease.

5. The streets near your school are not kept clean, and a protest, signed by the students, is about to be addressed to the city government. What reasons will it be well to urge?

6. A church is building in your town, and there has been some talk about harmony in church bells. Write an editorial paragraph urging that the bell of the new church be in harmony with the bells of the oth" churches.