NOTE. Not all interjections take the exclamation point, nor does the same interjection take the exclamation point in all cases. O, which is used in direct address, takes neither comma nor exclamation point; as, "O blessed Spirit, who hearest prayer!" But exclamatory oh (not to be used in direct address), ah, alas, lo, ha, bah, pshaw, and the like, require either a comma or an exclamation point. When the interjection itself is not emphatically exclamatory, it may be followed by a comma, and the exclamation point may be reserved for the end of the sentence, as in the third example under (3). In sentences that are only slightly exclamatory no exclamation point is needed; as, "Oh, I hadn't heard that." When an interjection is repeated, as in the second example under (3), the exclamation point may be placed at the end of the group of interjections, in case it is not intended to make each interjection emphatic. When the exclamation point comes in the middle of a sentence, the exclamation point is not followed by a capital.

6. The Interrogation Point (?). - The interrogation point is used

(1) At the end of every direct question; as, "When shall you go?" "That is really true?" [Here the question has the declarative form] "Where be your gibes now? your gambols? your songs? your flashes of merriment, that were wont to set the table on a roar?" (Hamlet) [Here the point follows each separate query] "It is a significant fact that Pilate's question and who has not heard of Pilate's question? when put to truth itself, brought him no reply" [Here the point follows the interrogative portion only].

(2) With parentheses to express doubt; as, "Daniel Defoe, born 1661 (?), died 1731."

NOTE. — This does not justify the vulgar use of the interrogation point to show irony; as, "Our worthy (?) friend," etc.

as,

7. The Dash (—). The dash is used

(1) To indicate a sudden change in thought or construction; "And that hat - what a hat for a ghost to wear!"

(2) To mark off parenthetical expressions, when the degree of separation is too great for commas simply, and not great enough for parentheses.

NOTE. In case the sentence would require a comma, were there no parentheses, a comma is used before each dash.

(3) After other marks of punctuation, either to strengthen them or to add its peculiar meaning to theirs.

(4) As a mere mark of elocution, to mark pauses, repetitions, hesitation, etc.; as, "Well, m'm, they -er- they told us they had a lantern, and Oh, shet up do!"

99.66

(5) To mark the omission of words, letters, and figures; as, "We had now reached the town of

nearly deserted," "The town of H

which was already

was the next to be

entered," "Matt. ix, 1-6" [That is, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6].

CAUTION. - Young writers not yet well grounded in punctuation frequently abuse the dash, either by using it where no mark of punctuation is needed or in place of other marks of punctuation. The student, therefore, should try to account for every dash he uses, and, if unable to give some cogent reason for its use, he should change the punctuation.

8. Parentheses (). - Parentheses, or curves of parenthesis, are used to enclose explanatory matter that is quite independent of the grammatical structure of the sentence; as, "Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) taught Americans thrift," "John Wilkes was (I state a matter of common knowledge) a man who was willing to sacrifice any principle for the sake of popularity."

9. Brackets []). Brackets are used to enclose matter that is inserted by another person than the original author; as, “One of those who fought in the battle [Braddock's defeat] said, 'I expected every moment to see him [Washington] fall,' but he was to live for greater work."

10. The Apostrophe ('). — The apostrophe is used

(1) As a sign of the genitive or possessive case; as, "the man's hat," "the horses' heads."

(2) To mark the plural of letters, figures, and signs; as, "You make your u's and your n's too much alike," ""Be more careful with your 3's and 8's," "What ugly &'s!"

(3) To mark the omission of a letter or letters in contractions; as, can't (cannot), o'clock (of the clock), etc.

11. The Hyphen (-). The hyphen is used

(1) Between the syllables of a word divided at the end of a line.

NOTE. Professor Hart (Handbook of English Composition, p. 230) offers the following suggestions for word-breaking :

"1. Never break a monosyllable.

"2. Do not break short dissyllables, such words as any, able, upon, about, master, lion, real, spirit, tyro.

"3. Do not break any word in such a way as to begin the second line with the syllables -el, -er, -ic, -al, -ing, -ly, and the like. Perhaps even -dom is undesirable.

"4. Make your breakings etymological, i.e., in accordance with the composition of the word." He also adds the general caution: "If you are in the slightest uncertainty, do not break, but begin the word on the next line."

(2) Between the parts of some compound words; as, fatherin-law, twenty-one, etc.

NOTE. Here, for the sake of distinction and especially to avoid the confusion that sometimes results when words like father-in-law have to be broken at the end of a line, the double hyphen (-) ought really to be used. It is so used throughout the Standard Dictionary. *Usage varies greatly as to what compound words should take the hyphen. Mr. F. Horace Teall, however, in English Compound Words and Phrases and in the Standard Dictionary (see pp. xv-xvi), has reduced the matter to some system.

12. Quotation Marks (""and").- Quotation marks are used

(1) To enclose direct quotations.

NOTE 1. The single marks are used to enclose a quotation within a quotation. The double marks, however, are used to enclose a third quotation standing within the quotation enclosed by the single marks; as, "A child once asked me, 'Sir, what makes people say, "Don't give up the ship"?" "1

NOTE 2.If a quotation stands by itself in a separate paragraph, printed in different type, it is usually not enclosed in quotation marks. The illustrative extracts in this book are examples.

NOTE 3. If a quotation consists of several paragraphs, and the quotation is continuous, quotation marks are used at the beginning of each paragraph and at the end of the last. But see Note 2, above; see also the quotation in the note to 11 (1), above.

(2) When italics are not used, to indicate the title of a book, periodical, poem, play, essay, picture, and the like, or the name of a ship.

NOTE. 11, p. 46.

Observe the practice in this book, and see the note to Section

13. Italics. - Italics are letters inclined to the right, like those in which this clause is printed. In writing, they are indicated by a single line drawn under the letters or words to be italicized. Italics are used

(1) To mark words from a foreign language that are still felt to be foreign, or to quote a brief passage in a foreign language.

(2) To indicate the title of a book, etc., when quotation marks are not used. See 12 (2) and note.

(3) To mark words that are especially emphatic.

NOTE. Such words, for example, as are spoken of as words, or words and sentences used to illustrate rules, when quotation marks are not used for this purpose. Italics should be used sparingly indeed for the purpose of showing mere emphasis. Emphasis is better got by other means, such, for instance, as those treated of in Chapters III and IV of this book. Where necessary to clearness, or where italics give some desirable effect that cannot otherwise be secured, italics may of course be employed.

14. Asterisks (***) and Leaders (...).- Asterisks and leaders are used to mark an omission, the former being usually used for the omission of an entire paragraph or a page or more, and the latter for the omission of words from a sentence or sentences from a paragraph.

15. General Rules for Capitals.-The following words should begin with capital letters:

(1) The pronoun I and the interjection O.

(2) The first word of a sentence, a line of poetry, and a direct quotation (except a mere fragment of a sentence).

(3) The names and titles of the Deity; as, the Supreme Being, the Almighty, etc.

NOTE. Some commonly capitalize personal pronouns referring to the Deity, but there is now a strong tendency to disregard the custom.

(4) Proper nouns, and most proper adjectives (i.e., adjectives derived from proper nouns); as, William Shakspere, Christian (from Christ), etc.

NOTE 1. Here may be mentioned the names of persons, places (including streets, rivers, mountains, etc.), countries, parts of the country (the North, the great Northwest; but A gale is coming from the northwest), the days, the months (but not the seasons), special days (Christmas, etc.), and weeks (Easter Week, etc.), ships, races, religious sects, political parties, fraternities and organizations generally, etc., etc.

NOTE 2.

Observe that the words river, street, mountain, etc., when they form a part of the proper name, are capitalized; as, Missouri River, Market Street, etc.

NOTE 3. When an adjective derived from a proper noun ceases to be thought of in connection with that noun, it sometimes loses its capital letter; as, herculean, stoical, stentorian, epicurean, quixotic, and the like.

(5) Titles of honor or office, when used with the name, or when equivalent to a proper name; as, President Roosevelt, The Attorney-General of the United States, etc.

NOTE. For titles of books, etc., see the rule regarding the titles of themes, p. 348.

(6) Names of things strongly personified.

(7) Any words of very great importance; as, Magna Carta, the Reformation, the Civil War, the Glacial Epoch, etc.