I. The Mean Vowel a.

The sound of a in father is to be regarded as the leading vowelsound in the Indo-European languages; (1.) Because it is the simplest and most easily enounced; (2.) Because it is the first enounced by children; (3.) Because it is the most common vowel-sound; (4.) Because it is a part of most roots; and (5.) Because it stands at the head of most alphabets.

Among the uses of this vowel are the following:

1. As the enunciation of this vowel requires nothing but the or dinary position of the organs of speech, with a simple opening of the mouth and breathing, it is the natural expression of passion, pain, or grief; as, Sanscrit ha, Persian ah, Hebrew ahh, Arabic ah, Greek a, Latin ah, German ach, ah, English ah, Welsh a, Irish a. 2. It enters into some verbs signifying to breathe; as, Greek aw, Latin halo, halare.

3. As the first and leading vowel, it is used where no reason exists for any special vowel. Hence it is found, as stated above, in a large proportion of Indo-European roots, in the technical names of the letters in Sanscrit, &c.

II. The Extreme Vowels u and i.

U, the lowest sound in the scale of vowels, is produced deep in the breast. Hence,

1. It expresses low and obscure sounds; as, Greek popuúpo, Latin murmuro, Russian murtshu, German murren, English murmur; Greek μúšw, Latin mutio, musso, English mutter; Dutch grommelen, English grumble; Danish grum, English grum, Welsh grum; Greek ypúšw, Old Latin grundio, German grunzen, English grunt.

2. It expresses the red in color (for what reason does not appear); as, Greek Epv0póç, пνррóç, пордúрa; Latin ruber, rufus, purpura; German roth, Anglo-Saxon rude, English ruddy, Welsh rhuz, Armorican ruz, Latin russus, rutilus, French roux.

I, the highest sound in the scale of vowels, is produced high in the throat. Hence,

1. It expresses whatever is clear, shrill, bright, or small; as, Sanscrit didhi, to shine; Latin viridis; Greek juкpóç.

2. It expresses the white in color (for what reason does not appear); as, Prussian sipid, white; Latin lilium.

III. The Mixed Vowels o and e.

The o, which is formed from a and u, and the e, which is formed

from a and i, partake of the import of the vowels whence they originate.

NOTE. The force of the vowels may be best exhibited in words which differ only in their vowels; as, Greek κρώζω, κράζω, κρίζω ; μακρός and μικρός; αλαλάζω and ἐλελίζω ; Latin cachinnor, to laugh aloud, and German kichern, to titter; English ball and pill, both from Latin pila; English gloom and gleam; flame and flimmer; shake and shiver; quake and quiver; juggle, gaggle, giggle; cluck, clack, click; croak, crack, creak; French gronder and grincer.

In passing to the consonants, we observe that the strong or weak consonants naturally denote strength or weakness respectively, and that the consonant of a particular organ of speech usually enters into the name of that organ.

IV. The Breathing or Aspiration h.

The letter h, or the breathing, is naturally adapted to express a breathing, or whatever occasions it, an aspiration for something, or whatever occasions it; as, Latin halo, to breathe; Sanscrit iha, desire; Zendish honover, desire; also, many Hebrew roots, formed with hhav, hav, and av, Latin aveo, which primarily denote breathing.

V. The Semi-Vowels w and y.

These letters, from their extreme weakness, are naturally adapted to express weakness, gentle motion, and kindred ideas; as, Latin vado (compare German waten, English wade); veho (compare German wegen in bewegen, English wag, weigh, wagon, wain, way, wave); vacillo (compare German wackeln, English waggle); verto (compare Latin versus, German -wärts, English -wards); volvo (compare German wälzen, English wallow, welter); German wallen, to spring up (whence English well); wandern (English wander); wehen, to blow (compare Latin ventus, English wind); wenden, to turn (English wend, past went); winden (English wind); weichen, to yield; wühlen, to stir. So w, when preceded by s or sh. See below. The Hebrew employs y initial where the Arabic has w, and the Teutonic uses w initial in the interrogative where the Sanscrit has y. Hence these semi-vowels can not greatly differ in their import.

VI. The Liquids 1 and r.

These liquids are naturally opposed to each other, as smooth and rough. In some languages, as the Sanscrit, they constitute vowels

1. The smooth liquid l occurs in the name of the organ which is employed in its enunciation; as, Latin lingua.

2. It occurs in the name of actions in which the tongue is principally concerned; as, Greek λahéw (compare Latin lallo, German lallen, English loll, Welsh llolian); λáπTw (Latin lambo, Danish labe, English lap, Welsh llepiaw, lleibiaw); λapvoow, hɛíxo (Sanscrit lih, Latin lingo, ligurio, Lithuanian lezu, Russian lizhu, German lecken, English lick, Irish lighim); ληρέω; λοιδορέω; λύζω ; λωβάζω.

3. It expresses whatever is soft or soothing; as, Greek λaźw, λɛłos (Latin levis), λεπρός, λιαρός, λιπάζω, λούω (Latin luo, lavo).

4. L final, in nouns, forms diminutives; as, Greek έpwrúλoç, a little lover, from Epwe; Latin scutulum, a little shield, from scutum ; German bündel, from bund, English bundle, from bond; Latin sacculus, from saccus, German säckel, from sack, English satchel or sachel, from sack. In verbs it expresses a repetition of little actions; as, Latin cantillo, from canto; German betteln, from beten; English prattle, from prate; tingle, from ting; tinkle, from tink; crackle, from crack; twinkle, from twink.

The rough liquid r has the following functions, either alone, or preceded by k or g:

1. It denotes rattling or broken sounds; as, Greek kpíšw, KPOTέw, Kрovw; English croak, crack, creak, crash, rattle.

2. It denotes interrupted or distorted motion; as, German, rad, krumm; English ring, rind, round, cramp, crook, crown, gripe, grasp, grapple. So wr. See below.

VII. The Nasals m, n, and ng.

The nasals m and n are employed to express negation, being the natural sounds to express refusal; as, Sanscrit má, Greek μý, lest; Sanscrit na, Persian neh, Greck vɛ (in výπɩoç), Latin ne (in non, nemo), German ne (in nicht, nein), English ne (in not, none), Lithuanian ne, Russian ne, Irish na, ni, Welsh na, ni, not. The labial nasal m is one of the earliest sounds of infants, being formed by their practiced lips, and is used,

1. To express the mother or nurse, on account of their objective importance to the child; as, Hebrew em, English ma, &c., mother; German amme, nurse.

2. To express the pronoun of the first person, on account of its subjective importance to every one; as, Sanscrit mam, Greck μé, Latin me, English me, &c.

3. To express one of the most important mental operations; as, Sanscrit man, Greek unów, Latin moneo, memini, German mahnen, meinen, English mean (compare Latin mens, English mind).

The lingual nasal n occurs in the name of the organ concerned; as, Latin nasus, English nose.

VIII. The Dentals s, sh, z, and zh.

The name sibilants given to this class of letters sufficiently indicates their import; compare Latin sibilo.

Ss final denotes sharp sounds; as, English hiss, siss, whisper, whistle.

Z final denotes sounds less sharp; as, English whiz, buzz.

Sh final denotes silence; as, hush; also, sounds or sights which break off suddenly; as, English clash, crash, flash, splash.

Sh initial expresses aversion; as, German scheu, English shy; English pshaw; shogh.

IX. The Palatal Mutes c or k, g, kh, and gh.

The import of the palatals is the least definite. Yet the atonic k is justly supposed to have a natural appropriateness to perform the function of an interrogative; as, Sanscrit kas, Greek Koç (whence KÓTEрOC), Latin quis. Maso-Gothic hwas, Lithuanian kas, Russian koi, Gaelic co, who? A palatal is also found in words denoting hollowness and holding; as, Greek kоiλоs (whence Latin cœlum); Latin cavus, capio.

X. The Lingual Mutes t, d, th, and dh.

1. The lingual, whether atonic or subtonic, has a natural adaptedness to perform the function of a demonstrative; as, Sanscrit tat, it, tataras, one of two; Greek Tó, TOŬTO, Tóσos, Tolos, &c.; Latin tantus, tot, talis, &c.; Lithuanian tas, ta, to, that; Gothic thata, that; German der, die, das, this; English that, this, &c.

2. The lingual is also found in three families of words, very extensively diffused through the Indo-European languages, each of which has the general import of pointing or demonstrating; as, (1.) Sanscrit tan, Greek Tavów, Tɛivw, Latin teneo, tendo, German dehnen, Russian tianu, English tend. (2.) Sanscrit dis', Greek deíkw, Latin dico, doceo, German zeigen, Irish teagasgaim, English teach. (3.) Sanscrit da, Greek dów, dídwu, Latin do, Lithuanian dumi, Russian daiu, to give.

XI. The Labial Mutes p, b, ph, and v.

1. The labials, from the ease with which they are enounced, have been employed to denote the first objects which interest the child; as, Sanscrit pitar, Zendish paitar, Persian padar, Greek Táτηp, Latin

pater, Russian batia, German vater, English father, Turkish peder; also, English papa.

2. They denote fullness or extension, from their swelling the cheeks; as, Greek πλéоç, πλýρηs, Latin pleo, plenus, German füllen, voll, English fill, full.

3. They also express aversion, from their puffing or blowing; as, Arabic uffu, Greek peu, Latin phy, English fie, poh.

XII. The Mixed Consonants tsh and dzh.

These consonants are introduced here for the sake of showing the difference between the physiological and the etymological development of sounds.

Tsh in English (where it is expressed by ch) is not an original sound, but has arisen, in the mutation of languages, from other sounds; as, chaff, from Anglo-Saxon ceaf; chalice, from Latin calix; change, from French changer; cheek, from Anglo-Saxon ceac; cherry, from Latin cerasus; cherish, from French cherir; child, from AngloSaxon cild; chief, from French chef; chimney, from Latin caminus ; choose, from Anglo-Saxon ceosan; chuck, from French choquer; church, from Anglo-Saxon circ. So tsh in Italian (where it is expressed by c before e and i) has arisen from the Latin c; as, Cicero (pronounced tshitshero), from Latin Cicero (pronounced kikero). Hence we have no occasion to investigate the import of tsh in modern languages. Its meaning, as an original sound in ancient Sanscrit, lies too remote for our present purpose.

Dzh in English, so far as it is expressed by g, is derived from the Latin g, which had a hard sound; and, so far as it is expressed by j, is derived from the Latin j, and ultimately from the Sanscrit y. Hence all inquiry as to the import of our modern dzh is superseded.

XIII. Consonants in Combination.

We shall perceive the natural force of the letters to better advantage by taking some of them in combination.

Bl and fl denote blowing, blooming, and flowing; as, Latin flo, German blähen, blasen, English blow, blaze, blast, bluster, blister, bladder; Greek phóos, Latin flos, floreo, German blühen, blüthe, bloom, English flower, flourish, bloom, blossom; Greek pλéw, phíw, pλúw, Latin fluo, German fliessen, fluth, English flow, flood; Latin fleo, to weep.

Cl or kl denotes cleaving or adhering; as, English cleave, clay (adhesive earth), cling, clinch, clutch, climb (whence clamber), clot (whence clod), clasp.

Cr or kr. See the force of the letter r, above.