immigrants in New York from various countries of eastern Europe show that the Jewish type in those countries is not Semitic, but varies in the different countries, always approximating, in stature and cephalic index, to the native or Christian population of the respective countries.

'Anthropometric Work at the St. Louis Exposition,' R. S. Woodworth and F. G. Bruner. As many as possible of the racial groups represented at the exposition were measured. The best material was found among the Philippine Islanders, of whom about 700 were measured. The Christianized tribes, such as the Tagalog, Pampango, Ilocano, Bicol, Visaya, were found very uniform in physical type. Measurements showed no clear evidence of differentiation among them. The average height of the several tribes differed but little from 161 cm., the cephalic index differs little from 83, etc. The Moros of Mindanao also are practically identical in physical type with the Christian tribes. The pagan Igorots and Bagobos seem to differ considerably from this type, especially in height, which is about 155 cm.; while the Negritos were clearly marked off from all the rest by their kinky hair, small stature (144 cm.), broad nose, and small head in proportion to stature. R. S. WOODWORTH, Secretary.

THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.

THE 600th regular meeting, held April 15, 1905, was celebrated by historical addresses in University Hall of the George Washington University, followed by a social hour with refreshments.

After a brief address by President Littlehales, half a dozen papers were read giving a review of the activities of the society since its foundation in 1871, under the presidency of Joseph Henry, in the lines of most interest to its present membership. Mr. Gore grouped and characterized succinctly the papers presented in mathematics. Mr. Wead reviewed the papers on physics, beginning with Henry's 'Aberrations of Fog Signals' and including recent notable work on aerodynamics. Mr. Clarke told of the great local development of

activity in chemistry since 1871. Mr. Gilbert spoke of the opportunities the society had furnished to discuss questions in geology, instancing cases where the discussions had led to important researches. Mr. Hayford recalled some of the notable advances in geodesy that had been presented to the society, Mr. Eichelberger reported on the papers in astronomy and Mr. Bauer spoke of the activity in electricity and magnetism. A brief letter from Dr. Gill was read regarding the interest in biology before the formation of the other scientific societies.

THE 601st meeting was held April 29, 1905. Professor W. S. Eichelberger exhibited one of the Riefler self-winding astronomical clocks belonging to the Naval Observatory and described its construction. It is in a case from which about one eighth of the air is exhausted; the pendulum is of nickel-steel alloy compensated; the power comes from two small cells of battery and is applied about twice a minute. The rate is very small and very

constant.

Professor F. H. Bigelow then spoke on 'Ionization and Temperature-Effects in the Atmosphere.' The great problems in meteorology relate to the vertical distribution and semidiurnal curve of temperatures; and to the variations in vapor tension, atmospheric electricity and magnetic field. A great number of curves representing the results of observations on the quantities involved in these problems were exhibited, and the attempt was made to explain the facts according to the modern theory of ionization. The paper will appear in the Monthly Weather Review. CHARLES K. WEAD, Secretary.

THE SCIENCE CLUB OF NORTHWESTERN
UNIVERSITY.

THE Science Club held its regular monthly meeting on Friday, April 7, 1905, at 7:30 P.M. The following papers were presented:

MR. G. G. BECKNELL: An Investigation of the Residual Current of the Electric Arc.'

MR. GORDON FULCHER: 'The Duddell Oscillograph.'

PROFESSOR O. H. BASQUIN: The Bending Moment of a Uniformly Loaded Beam; a New Experimental Demonstration.'

FLOYD FIELD,

Secretary.

DISCUSSION AND CORRESPONDENCE.

CONNECTION BY PRECISE LEVELING BETWEEN THE ATLANTIC AND PACIFIC OCEANS.

TO THE EDITOR OF SCIENCE: In your issue of April 28, 1905, page 673, is an article by Mr. Hayford on 'Connection by Precise Leveling between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.' About twenty years ago I wrote to SCIENCE in connection with precise leveling over the Alleghanies and the Rocky Mountains, and stated that it might be well to have a systematic determination of bench marks at stated intervals owing to the unrest in the earth's crust. At that time I stated that my work on the corps of the Pennsylvania Railroad had shown me that, however carefully the bench marks might be established at any one time, at the expiration of a comparatively few years there would be a discrepancy between them and the datum plane. The Pennsylvania Railroad has reviewed its bench marks a number of times owing to these discrepancies due to earth motion. The want of agreement, therefore, between the levels of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, unless the bench marks were established by surveys which began and ended at exactly the same period throughout the entire distance, might be due to earth movements between the times of the beginning and the end of the survey.

I would again suggest, as I did at my first letter to this paper, that the United States Geological Survey secure not only the lists of bench marks of all railroads, but the variations that have occurred in these bench marks as shown by repeated surveys. If these are carefully tabulated throughout a century, we may obtain important information in regard to the upward and downward crustal movements across the continent.

EDWARD H. WILLIAMS, JR.

SPECIAL ARTICLES.

THE HORIZONTAL PLANE OF THE SKULL AND THE GENERAL PROBLEM OF THE COMPARISON OF VARIABLE FORMS.

IN comparative studies of the skull it is customary to select one transversal plane defined by the axis of symmetry with which it is at right angles and by two points, as the standard plane to which the skull is referred. Some authors have made the selection of the two determining points based on morphological considerations, while others have endeavored to determine the physiological horizontal position, determining the latter by two points which are more or less accurately parallel to the direction of horizontal sight.

When this problem is considered from a purely morphological point of view, it will be recognized that there is no justification in selecting arbitrarily two points and disregarding all others, but that the best method of comparison must be based on the assumption that every point of the skull has equal weight and that the nearest approach of all points must be attempted. In this form the problem is applicable to the comparison of all variable forms.

y"

The most favorable superposition of any two forms will be obtained when the sum of the squares of the distances between all pairs of homologous points becomes a minimum. We will refer the body to a system of rect angular coordinates and call x', y' and z' the ordinates of a point of the first body, a", and " the ordinates of the homologous point of the second body. By moving the second body by the amounts u, v and w in the direction of the three ordinates, we can modify the relative positions of homologous points without torsion of the body. Then the sum of the squares of the distances of homologous points Σ (a' — x'' — u)2 + Σ ( y′—y'' — v)2 + Σ(z'—z'' −x)' is to be a minimum. Therefore,

And

Σ (x' — x'' — u) = 0.

u = Σ(x′ — x'' ),

v = Σ(y' — y''),

w= Σ(z' — z'').

i. e., the two bodies must be so placed that their geometrical centers of gravity coincide. Provided the two forms are symmetrical, this result gives a complete solution of the problem. If the forms are irregular, the degree of torsion must be determined which will give the best result. In most cases the form in question will be symmetrical in at least one direction, so that torsion in one direction only need be considered. Starting with the geometrical center of gravity as the origin of a system of polar coordinates, we have for any given pair of points the coordinates l' and " as distances from the center, and a' and a" as angles with the zero line. If we give the second system of points the torsion , we find that

Σ {1/2+1//2—21/l cos (§ + a" — a′)} must be a minimum; or

the territory now included in the southern states, are important in determining the route If the location of this Spanish adventurer.

of these two villages-especially the firstcan be determined with reasonable certainty it will enable us to fix the route of the Adelantado with comparative accuracy from his landing place at Tampa Bay, Florida, until he reached the vicinity of Mauvilla in Alabama.

The widest variation in opinion of the numerous authorities touching upon the subject, relates to the position of Xuala; these views, however, may be classed in two unequal groups, as is evident from the following list: The map of Cornelius Wytfliet in his 'Descrip. Ptolemaica (1596)' locates this village on the west side of Savannah River near the head. DeLisle's map (1707?) in French's 'Hist. Coll. La.,' though indefinite, places it west of the Savannah. Later authorities locate it as follows: Pickett ('Hist. Alabama,' I., p. 8); C. C. Jones, Jr. ('Hernando de Soto,' p. 13); Cyrus Thomas (5th Ann. Rep. Bur. Eth., p. 95); and Theodora Irving ('Hist. Cong. Florida,' II., p. 8), all locate it west of the upper Savannah in Nacooche valley, Habersham County, Georgia, or in that immediate vicinity. Mr. James Mooney (19th 'Ann. Rep. Bur. Eth.,' pt. 1, p. 195) and Woodbury Lowery ('Spanish Settlements within the United States,' p. 230, in the text, but not on the map) locate it in the 'piedmont' region of North Carolina, about the head of Broad river-which would be about Henderson County. Gilmore Shea in his article entitled 'Ancient Florida,' in Justin Winsor's 'Narrative and Critical History of America, II.,' follows, in this part of De Soto's route, the course given by C. C. Jones, Jr. Buckingham Smith on the map in his 'Narrative of De Soto (Bradford Club Series, V., pl. 5) places Xuala about Habersham County, Georgia, but locates Guaxule to the northwest, apparently about Towns County of the same state, or possibly over the line, in Tennessee. Although Shipp (De Soto and Florida') does not locate Xuala, he places Guaxule in Bartow County, Georgia, thus agreeing substantially with Pickett, Jones and

Thomas. The New International Encyclopedia' follows, in part, Mooney and Lowery, but also differs from them in part.

It will be seen from this list that the general consensus of authorities-all, in fact, but two or three-locate Xuala somewhere in northern Georgia, most of them in Habersham County, while Mooney and Lowery place it in southwestern North Carolina, somewhere in the region of Henderson or Rutherford County. Although the article 'De Soto,' in the New International Encyclopedia' apparently follows Mooney in locating Xuala, though it does not mention the name, it differs radically from them in regard to the immediately following portion of the route, carrying it down the Coosa, instead of the Chattahoochee. It is rather strange that Lowery on the Sketch Map' of his work locates Xuala in or near Habersham County, northeastern Georgia, and Guaxule about Bartow County, and follows down the Coosa River instead of the Chattahoochee as in his text (p. 230).

The object at present is to examine briefly the data and determine, if possible, which of these two divergent views agrees most nearly with the original chronicles of the expedition, and the topography of the country, or whether both are erroneous.

All the facts bearing upon this particular inquiry to be drawn from the original chronicles relate to the march from Cofitachiquiwhere the Adelantado was so royally entertained by the noted cacica-to Chiaha, where he paused to recuperate because of abundant food and pasture.

It is now generally conceded that Cofitachiqui was located on the east bank of Savannah River, at or near Silver Bluff, about twentyfive miles below Augusta, though one or two authors have contended that it was at the junction of Broad and Savannah Rivers. We shall, therefore, proceed upon the assumption that it was at or in the vicinity of Silver Bluff -as this theory is maintained by the views we propose to discuss; calling attention first to that theory which places Xuala in western North Carolina.

From Cofitachiqui, according to all the original chronicles, De Soto and his army pro

ceeded northward, without, so far as the records show, recrossing the river, hence on the east side of the Savannah, in what is now South Carolina. However, in order to procure a supply of food the army was divided into two parties, that with De Soto going directly onward, while the other turned aside, some twelve leagues, say the chronicles (probably toward the bottom land), where there was a store of maize offered them by the cacica.

Before reaching Xuala they passed through some small villages or settlements of the Chalaque (or Achalaque) now recognized as the Cherokees. The time given for the march from Cofitachiqui to the Chalaque by the different chroniclers differs considerably; Elvas states it was seven days; Garcilasso, eight; and Ranjel (in Oviedo), only two. Biedma does not mention Chalaque, but makes the time occupied in going from Cofitachiqui to Xuala eight days. As further data regarding the time occupied, it may be stated that Elvas makes the time from Cofitachiqui to Xuala twelve days. Ranjel makes it seven days, mentioning as an intermediate village Guaquili-not noted by the others-which he says was three days' march from Xuala. Gareilasso makes the distance between the same points fifty leagues. All agree in giving the time from Xuala to Guaxule as five days.

As the particular view we are now discussing is that maintained by Mr. Mooney and Mr. Lowery (in his text) and the latter follows the former without going into details, for these we have necessarily to refer to the statements by the former.

According to these the Chalaque villages were probably on or near Keowee River, for which point we may assume Anderson, Anderson County, South Carolina, as among the modern names along the supposed route. From this point the Adelantado's force proceeded to Xuala, which this authority, as already stated, places about Henderson County, North Carolina. From there, according to both authorities, they moved west, 'down French Broad' River as far, we are justified in supposing (as no point is mentioned), as to or near the site of Asheville. From there these authors carry them southwest to

White County, Georgia, where they arrive at Guaxule. This route, if traveled by De Soto as this theory supposes, was according to the geologist of the U. S. Geological Survey, who has been at work in that section, most likely, as follows: Using modern names to designate the points; from Anderson, South Carolina, to Greenville, same state, 26 miles; thence across Blue Ridge to Hendersonville, North Carolina, 35 miles; thence down French Broad valley to Asheville, 22 miles; thence through Hominy Gap and up Richland Creek to Waynesville, 30 miles; thence through Balsam Gap and down Scott's Creek to Webster, 24 miles; thence across Tuckasugee River and Cowee Mountains to Franklin, 17 miles; thence across Nantahala River and down Shooting Creek to Hiwassee, 32 miles; thence up Hiwassee River and down the Chattahoochee to Nacoochee, White County, Georgia, 25 miles, part of this line being along an old Indian trail. As the distance from Silver Bluff to Anderson is about one hundred miles, two or three more or less, this makes the entire distance along this supposed route from Cofitachiqui to Guaxule three hundred and eleven miles, and from Cofitachiqui to Xuala, one hundred and sixty-one miles, and from Xuala to Guaxule one hundred and fifty miles.

Though the route actually traveled according to this theory may not have been precisely that laid down, it must have been near to and parallel with it, and the distance and character of the country were substantially the same.

Our reasons for rejecting this theory are as follows: First, the distance, at least between some of the points, is too great to have been traveled by the army with its incumbrances, among which was a drove of hogs, in the time specified. These hogs may by constantly moving have become good travelers, and may have accomplished the trip from Cofitachiqui to Xuala, a distance of about one hundred and sixty miles, in twelve days-the longest time. given by any of the chroniclers. But when the distance from Xuala to Guaxule, which on this route was at least one hundred and fifty miles, has to be traveled in five days, the time given by all the chronicles-a rate of thirty miles per day-the requirement becomes

an utter impossibility for an army thus hampered, and scarcely possible for an army free from these incumbrances, especially through a rough and densely wooded country where there were no other roads than narrow pathways.

This route places Xuala on the west or north of the Blue Ridge which has to be crossed in going from Greenville to Hendersonville.

Another insuperable objection to this route is that it requires us to assume that the territory of the cacica extended into western North Carolina, or included a detached section therein with the Sara or Cheraw, a Siouan tribe, as subjects, hedged in between the Cherokees and the Catawbas. This would be extraordinary.

This assumption is absolutely necessary, if we follow the theory in question, as it is clear, from all the chronicles, that Xuala was under the cacica's control. It is even stated by one chronicler that after she made her escape, which occurred between Xuala and Guaxule, it was ascertained that she was at the former village where she and the negro Robles, who escaped at the same time, were living as husband and wife. The assumption of this route requires not only the supposition that the Cheraws were her subjects and their country in her kingdom, but also when she escaped she went back northward into western North Carolina instead of continuing southward to her own proper capital. It also necessitates the supposition that her flight was mostly through Cherokee country, where she would more likely have been taken captive and possibly slain than kindly concealed and helped on her way.

Another reason for rejecting this theory is that it places Guaxule in White County, Georgia, where no mound of the character described is known to exist or to have existed. It is claimed by advocates of the theory that there is a mound which will answer the description near Clarksville. This, however, is a mistake. There is, it is true, a mound in that locality, but it will by no means fill the requirements. It is in the upper part of Nacoochee valley, near its western extremity,