does not reveal any such finely graduated organic chain; and this, perhaps, is the most obvious and gravest objection which can be urged against my theory. The explanation lies, as I believe, in the extreme imperfection of the geological record." (P. 246.) He would account for the absence of the first link of the chain on the supposition that in consequence of the delicacy of their organization all traces of the forms existing before the Silurian period were obliterated by metamorphic or other influences. But it is fair to presume that these destructive agencies, whatever they were, must have subsided gradually, and left some traces, however imperfect, of the immediate progenitors of such well-preserved animals as are found in the lowest fossiliferous strata, if any such progenitors ever existed. To account for the absence of the intermediate links, he contends that the "geological formations in any region are almost invariably intermittent," and separated by long intervals of time. This he explains on the theory that "all the ancient formations which are rich in fossils have been formed during subsidence,” and the fossils thus preserved; while "the littoral and sub-littoral deposits are continually worn away as soon as they are brought up, by the slow and gradual rising of the land, within the grinding action of the coast waves." (P. 254.) We cannot resist the temptation to give entire Agassiz's reply to this ingenious argument:

He would have us believe that geological deposits took place during the periods of subsidence, when it can be proved that the whole continent of North America is formed of beds which were deposited during a series of successive upheavals. I quote North America in preference to any other part of the world because the evidence is so complete here that it can only be overlooked by those who may mistake subsidence for the general shrinkage of the earth's surface in consequence of the cooling of its mass. In this part of the globe fossils are as common along the successive shores of the rising deposits of the Silurian system as anywhere along our beaches; and each of these successive shores extends from the Atlantic states to the foot of the Rocky Mountains. The evidence goes even further. Each of these successive sets of beds of the Silurian system contains peculiar fossils, neither found in the beds above nor in the beds below, and between them there are no intermediate forms."-Am. Jour. Sci., vol. xxx, p. 146.

His wonderful theory of the gradual perfection of the organs of vision by natural selection through countless ages is also

somewhat robbed of its fair proportions by the evidence which geology furnishes of the existence of such complex and perfect eyes as those of trilobites among the very oldest fossils.

These are but a few of the facts which the geological record, imperfect as it is, presents in opposition to this theory; and Mr. Darwin, with all his ingenuity and special pleading, has not been able to weaken their force or pervert their meaning. We contend that they are absolutely fatal to it, and must be disproved before it can even be admitted as a possible hypothesis, much less a probable one. His chapters on Geographical Distribution, Classification, Embryology, etc., in spite of their interest, we must pass over entirely. The arguments we have given bear upon the most essential points, and they must serve as specimens of the whole.

We have discussed this as a scientific question only, to be decided upon its merits without reference to its theological bearings. It will be time enough to consider it from this latter point of view when it appears likely to become established as a true scientific theory, of which there seems now to be but little need of apprehension. In conclusion we must say that, with all the ingenuity displayed by Mr. Darwin in the discussion of the many curious facts his industry has collected, and whatever may be the benefit to science from the new impulse given to investigation by his book, he has, in our opinion, entirely failed to re-establish on a scientific basis the often rejected theory of the transmutation of species. We are satisfied that, as an explanation of the origin of species, "natural selection" will prove a delusion, and that science will soon consign it to its appropriate place in the museum of curious and fanciful speculations.

March 16, 1861.

ART. V.-THE CULDEES.

THE name "Culdees" has been given to a body of Christians who resided chiefly in Scotland, Ireland, and some of the adjacent isles. There has been a difference of opinion in regard to the origin of the name, some deriving it from the Latin Cultores Dei, worshipers of God, and others from the Irish Ceile De, meaning servants of God. In either case the name was honorable to those who bore it, denoting their high and peculiar religious character.

The Culdees originated with Columba, an Irish missionary, who came into Scotland to preach the Gospel to the northern Picts, about the year 563. Ireland was at this time distinguished for its zeal and progress in the Christian faith. Its clergy were among the most learned and efficient in the world. The country was an asylum for the oppressed and persecuted of other lands, and its Churches increased and prospered greatly. Ireland was at this period called proverbially insula sanctorum, an island of saints. An influence went forth from it to enlighten and to bless other lands, of which the mission of Columba to Scotland was but an instance.

It is not easy to determine precisely at what period Christianity was first planted in the British Isles. Both Eusebius and Theodoret mention the Britons as among those nations to whom the Gospel was preached by the apostles; and Clemens Romanus, a companion of Paul, informs us that he pursued his missionary labors "to the utmost boundaries of the West." But whether he actually visited Britain is more than can be determined with absolute certainty.

Among the thousands of Romans who passed over into what is now England, in the reign of Claudius and his successors, there were undoubtedly many professed Christians, who, of course, would labor for the spread of the Gospel. We know, at least, that before the close of the second century Christianity had not only entered Britain, but had made much progress there. Tertullian tells us that it had reached not only those parts of the country which were subject to the Romans, but beyond them "the regions of the Britons inaccessible to the Romans, but subject to Christ."

We have yet another evidence of the early introduction of the Gospel into the remoter parts of Britain. The Christianity which we first find in Scotland and Ireland seems evidently to have been of the primitive stamp. It gives evidence of having been derived from the fountain head of the apostles, and not to have flowed through the corrupted channels of Rome. According to Archbishop Usher, Palladius was sent to "the Scots believing on Christ by Cœlestine, Bishop of Rome, in the year 431." This shows that there were Christians in Scotland at this early period in sufficient numbers to attract the notice of the Roman bishop. The precise object of Palladius's mission does not appear, though the design was, probably, to initiate the simple Bible Christians of Scotland into the superadded ceremonies and superstitions which prevailed at Rome.

Shortly after this visit, Succathus, a Scotchman, went over into Ireland, and there labored most assiduously as a missionary of the cross. He did not first introduce Christianity into Ireland; but so successful was he in propagating it and in bringing the natives to a knowledge of the truth that he has been called, not improperly, the apostle of Ireland. He was afterward canonized by the Romish Church, under the name of Patricius. He is the St. Patrick of Ireland, so much honored by the people of that country in all periods since. He was very far, however, from being a Romish priest or bishop in the modern sense of the term. The Christianity which he taught, both as to form and substance, was the same which he had received from his Scottish teachers. Though not altogether free from superstition, it strongly resembled the religion of the first and second centuries after Christ.

But to return to Columba, who flourished a hundred years later than Palladius or Succathus, in which period, as I said, Ireland became distinguished for its religious privileges and influence. He was born in Ireland about the year 521.* After laboring for a time with signal success for the advancement of religion in his native land, he set sail for the neighboring coast of Scotland. His attention was first directed to the Northern Picts, many of whom were converted through

He is to be distinguished from Columban, another Irish monk or missionary who rose a little later, preached the Gospel in what is now France, and finally died in Italy.

FOURTH SERIES, VOL. XIII.-40

his instrumentality. To reward him for his disinterested exertions, the king of the Picts put him in possession of the little island of Iona, lying on the outer shore of Mull, which is one of the principal of the Hebrides, or Western Islands. Columba now returned to Ireland, and having secured twelve assistants, came back and established himself at Iona. The first object of these adventurers was to prepare themselves huts, and to erect a little church. But as the fame of their enterprise rapidly spread, and numbers resorted to them for religious instruction, these original structures, which were necessarily rude, gave place to others of a more permanent character; and in a few years Iona was covered with cloisters and churches, and became the residence of a numerous body of teachers and students.

The establishment at Iona is commonly spoken of as a convent; but it was more properly a college, or rather a theological and missionary school. Its inmates were, indeed, subject to rules; but they were not associated, as in other convents, chiefly for the purpose of observing rules. Their rules were intended for the preservation of order, and the attainment of proper habits and discipline; while the grand design of all was to train up men for active service in the Gospel ministry. The institution was supported partly by charitable contributions and partly by the inmates themselves; a certain portion of each day being devoted to manual labor.

The school at Iona was furnished with a valuable library. Of this we have evidence so late as the fifteenth century. When Pope Pius II. was in Scotland, in 1456, he proposed visiting Iona in search of rare and valuable books.

The government of the institution was vested in a principal and twelve assistants. The office of principal was held by Columba till the time of his decease in the year 597. Himself and his assistants were all presbyters, there being no higher ministerial office among them. To them pertained the business of instruction, and the general oversight of the concerns of the institution. They judged of the qualifications of those under their care, gave them ordination when prepared for it, sent them forth to their respective fields of labor, and still continued them under their direction and control. Even those of them who were constituted bishops still considered themselves