a period not incompatible with reasonable archæology rose or set very near the line of the sun's course at some period of the year; and a further restriction is this, that the rising or setting must be just so far in advance of sunrise as to enable the star to be seen from the adytum of the temple, and, at the same time, not preceding it by any longer interval than is necessary.

If, in addition to this, we find, as is frequently the case in the Egyptian temples, and is not without parallel in Greece, that as the star to whose point of rising or setting the axis of a temple was first aimed worked away from its then position by precession, either the doorway of the temple was altered, or a new temple founded alongside, so as to retain the desired observation; and in every case of such new temple being so built it is found to have followed the same cult as the original; if, in addition to this, in different provinces temples are found of which the cult is known, and which are so planned as to be able to use the same star-with such decided differences of orientation, however, as were prescribed by latitude and the local circumstances of the surrounding heights-we obtain a further strong corroboration, and one that will in many cases be sufficient to determine the cult, where this has not been otherwise pointed out.

One further step requires to be taken to occupy the ground with perfect confidence-viz. to inquire what analogy is there between the days of the month when the sun would rise ushered in, as it may be said, by the temple's peculiar star, and the days of the festivals as derived from historical sources. In this comparison we must not expect a coincidence,on every point.

The date of the temple foundation in many cases is pre-Homeric, whilst the basis of the historical account of the date of the feast is probably post-Persic. There may have been an interval of nearly 1000 years between the two, so that there is room for changes. Again, owing to their double system of reckoning months and years, considerable variation in the dates given by Mommsen, whose authority I mainly follow, is quite possible; and besides this, in some of the cases given below, the orientation day, if I may so call it, may be in fault one or possibly two days for want of the exact particulars of the site to which I have made allusion.

Firstly, speaking of Attic feasts, the great temple at Eleusis is an example very much to the point. The star which seems to have determined the orientation is Sirius, shining as it rose at midnight along the axis of the temple on September 14. The Eleusinian mysteries are stated to have commenced on the 16th of that month. In this case the sun was not looked for; the weird light of the star reflected from some combination of jewels was more likely to have been suited to the mysteries. It is perhaps less likely that this ceremony would have been changed than in most of the other cases.

The axis of the older Erechtheum)

had the central star of the fine The lesser Panathenaia, constellation Aquarius setting dated August 13-14. heliacally on August 9. Warning of the sunrise at Sunium was given by the setting of the Pleiades on October 20.

A feast to Minerva and Vulcan is dated October 30.

The star a Arietis rose heliacally) The feast Olympia is reto the older Olympieium at corded for April 19 in Athens, April 2, more than later times. 1000 years B.C.

The temple of Diana Brauronia on the Acropolis of Athens agreed with the rising of Aquarius (the central star Aquarii in particular) on February 21 at the presumed date of its foundation.

The Little Mysteries were celebrated February 21.-N. B. A temple of Diana was in close connection with the great temple at Eleusis.

In the earliest times, as already explained, the stars were used as the only available clocks, but probably by the end of the sixth century, whether by the discovery of

the behaviour of the stars or by the invention of the water-clock (which is recorded to have been used to some extent in the fifth century), or other approximate means of measuring time, the dependence on the stars alone had ceased; and the later temples, in Greece at any rate, appear to have been built without any reference to these. At Athens this applies to the existing or new Erechtheum, the Theseum and the temple of Nike Apteros, which temples do not seem to have been built parallel to any old foundations. The old foundations under the Erechtheum have a very different angle. The sunrise, however, was considered in these just as much as before, for owing to the artistic instinct of the Greeks, they seem invariably to have secured for their principal festivals the fine effect of the first sunbeam on the statue; but as all the temples, whether old or new, admitted of two axial coincidences with the sunrise-one which might have a clock star (as it may be called) to announce the dawn; the other, except by rare accident, having none, the desired effect would have been attained on both occasions when the sun had the same declination.

It will be obvious that if the axis of a temple in any latitude had been directed due east (the horizon also being level), the rising sun would coincide with it at both the spring and autumn equinoxes. Similarly every other amplitude would have two solar coincidences (provided that is, in accordance with what has just been stated, the axis fell within the solstitial limits). When it had been found that the precessional movement had taken away the star from the direction of the axis, there would have been no reason for preferring one of these solar coincidences to the other, and the feast could have been shifted to a different date if it had been thought more convenient. It would appear that something of this sort may have taken place at Athens, for we find on the Acropolis the Archaic temple, which seems to have been intended originally for a vernal festival, offering its axis to the autumnal sunrise on the very day of the great Panathenaia in August.

The Chryselephantine statue of the Parthenon, which temple followed on the same lines as the earlier Hecatompedon (originally founded to follow the rising of the Pleiades after that constellation had deserted the Archaic temple alongside), was lighted up by the sunrise on the feast to the same goddess in August, the Synæcia, instead of some spring festival, for which both these temples seem at first to have been founded.

The temple at Sunium, already quoted for its October star-heralded festival to Minerva, was oriented also axially to the sun on February 21, the feast of the lesser mysteries.

Of temples of later foundation we have the following for which no suitable stars can be found :

The Erechtheum, its sun axis days are March 2 and September 4, the latter being the date of the Niceteria, the special festival of that temple, supposed to record the celebrated contest between Minerva and Neptune, considered to have been on September 3. Another instance is the Theseum.

The Thesea are put down for October 8-9. The sunrise theory points out either March 7 or October 7. Does not this fact restore the disputed title of Theseus to this temple?

There cannot be so much known respecting the feasts in the other provinces.

The Olympic games were held, according to most authorities, soon after midsummer, but by others in the autumn. I quote on Nissen's authority the following:

August, according to the Olympiad. The axis of the emple at Corinth coincides with the sunrise on both chose months, but to only one of them (that of May) is a Star applicable.

Further confirmation of the truth of this general heory-namely, that the amplitudes of stars determined the orientations of temples-lies in the fact that in the majority of instances, at any rate, the same star belongs to the same cult. I am satisfied that this can be established for the Egyptian temples. In Greece we find the following.

The star a Arietis is the brightest star of the first sign of the Zodiac, and would therefore be peculiarly appropriate to a temple of Jupiter. The heliacal rising of this star agrees both with the Olympieium at Athens and that at Olympia. There is a considerable difference in the deviation of the axes of these two temples from the true east; but this is exactly accounted for by greater apparent altitude of Hymettus over the distant Mount Pholo.

Star.

The Pleiades are common to the following temples of Minerva, viz. the Archaic temple on the Acropolis, the Hecatompedon, and Sunium. In the two former it is the

rising, the latter the setting star.

a Virginis or Spica must have been supposed to be sacred to Juno. The Heræum at Olympia agrees exactly with this view, and the Argive Heræum can be referred to no other; but, as the foundations of the earlier Heræum are not now visible, the exactness of the coincidence cannot be thoroughly established without reexcavating part of the site. There is nothing, however, inconsistent to this view in what is known about it. The nomenclature of the temple of Juno at Girgenti rests on a rather weak historical basis; but Spica entirely supports it.

There must have been something in common between the temples at Corinth, Ægina, and Nemea. The two last, at any rate, are reputed temples of Jupiter, and I have reason to think that also the Temple of Jupiter at Girgenti agrees with the same star-namely, Antares.

Pleiades (n Tauri) Sirius...

Fomalhaut (a Piscis Australis)...

Spica, i.e. a Virginis.

Hecatompedon temple of Minerva

Athens

April 25

I 120

(Temple of Minerva, Sunium...

Sunium

October 20...

1125

S

Temple of Ceres, Eleusis (for midnight

mysteries)

Eleusis

September 14

1380

R

The same for sunrise

Eleusis

November 18

1350

a Arietis

tributed to Deucalion

Athens

April 1

1135

April 3

760

Temple at Corinth

| Corinth

May I

700

Antares (a Scorpii)

Jupiter Panhellenius, Ægina

Ægina

May 6

670

Nemea, Temple of Jupiter

Nemea

similar to two last

(Oldest temple at Epidaurus (the Hiero)

Aquarius ( Aquarii)

August 9

920

The above table of approximate results, which I have put together, must for the most part be considered preliminary, and subject to amendment when further particulars have been ascertained, which I am in hopes of being able to obtain in the course of the present season. Nevertheless, I do not think that as respects the examples mentioned in Nos. 1, 2, 9, 12, and 16, there will be much need of alteration, as of these I am already in possession, though not of all, yet of the most important measurements. Of the remainder I do not feel so confident, but there is still a good deal that can be pointed out in respect to some of them which is consistent with historical and architectural archæology.

Olympia must have been a sacred spot long before the Olympiads began to be dated, and the Heræum there appears to be the most archaic temple structure that exists in Greece. The date suggested by the orientation, 1300 B C., does not seem unreasonable.

Then we come to the establishment of the Olympiads,

| Athens

Athens Athens

which began 776 years B.C. Compare the date of the great Temple of Jupiter derived from its orientation, 76c.

The temple at Corinth was thought by archæologists of the past generation to date from about the middle of the seventh century B.C. The date I get from its orientation is 700.

The temple at Egina, it is evident from its architecture, is somewhat later than that at Corinth or the Olympian Jupiter. That is also the orientation view of the case. At the same time, I think that the interval between Nos. 11 and 12 ought to be more than thirty years. I rather expect that more exact measurements at Corinth will throw back somewhat the date of that example. Want of clear weather obliged me to be content with magnetic bearings at Corinth, and these may easily be at fault as much as 12

F. C. PENROSE.

VOLCANIC ACTION IN THE British Isles.

Α1 T the anniversary of the Geological Society, held on the 19th inst., the retiring President, Sir Archibald Geikie, gave the annual address, which was devoted to a continuation of the subject treated of by him last year. He now dealt with the history of volcanic action in this country from the close of the Silurian period up to older Tertiary time. The remarkable volcanic outbursts that took place in the great lakes of the Lower Old Red Sandstone were first described. From different vents over central Scotland, piles of lava and tuff, much thicker than the height of Vesuvius, were accumulated, and their remains now form the most conspicuous hill-ranges of that district. It was shown how the subterranean activity gradually lessened and died out, with only a slight revival in the far north during the time of the Upper Old Red Sandstone, and how it broke out again with great vigour at the beginning of the Carboniferous period. Sir Archibald pointed out that the Carboniferous volcanoes belonged to two distinct types and two separate epochs of eruption. The earlier series produced extensive submarine lavasheets, the remains of which now rise as broad terraced plateaux over parts of the lowlands of Scotland. The later series manifested itself chiefly in the formation of numerous cones of ashes, like the puys of Auvergne, which were dotted over the lagoons and shallow seas in central Scotland, Derbyshire, Devonshire, and the southwest of Ireland. After a long quiescence, volcanic action once more reappeared in the Permian period; and numerous small vents were opened in Fife and Ayrshire, and far to the south in Devonshire. With these eruptions the long record of Palæozoic volcanic activity closed. No trace has yet been discovered of any volcanic rocks intercalated among the Secondary formations of this country, so that the whole of the vast interval of the Mesozoic period was a prolonged time of quiescence. At last, when the soft clays and sands of the Lower Tertiary deposits of the south-east of England began to be laid down, a stupendous series of fissures was opened across the greater part of Scotland, the north of England, and the north of Ireland. Into these fissures lava rose, forming a notable system of parallel dykes. Along the great hollow from Antrim northwards between the outer Hebrides and the mainland of Scotland, the lava flowed out at the surface and formed the well-known basaltic plateaux of that region.

The address concluded with a summary of the more important facts in British volcanic history bearing on the investigation of the nature of volcanic action. Among these Sir Archibald laid special stress on the evidence for volcanic periods, during each of which there was a gradual change of the internal magma from a basic to an acid condition, and he pointed out how this cycle had been repeated again and again even within the same limited area of eruption. In conclusion, he dwelt on the segregation of minerals in large eruptive masses, and indicated the importance of this fact in the investigation, not only of the constitution and changes of the volcanic magma, but also of the ancient gneisses where what appear to be original structures have not yet been effaced.

who had to give the annual address, and take notices the centenary, was Murchison's literary executor, wi was designated by him as the first Professor of Geolog in the chair which he founded in the University Edinburgh, and who now fills the office which he he for so many years-that of Director-General of the Ge logical Survey. In referring to the doubly interestry features of this anniversary, Sir Archibald Geikie spos of his great chief with warm admiration. The twe years which have passed since Murchison's death enable geologists to make a truer estimate of Murchison's rel achievements than was possible at the time when he commanding presence filled so prominent a place in the scientific world of his day. They have been able correct some of his observations and discard some of be generalizations, yet the solid mass of original work dere by him remains as a lasting memorial of his genius 1 industry. In the broad basis of facts, and in the skil marshalling of these facts in their ordered relations, whi distinguished his work among the Silurian rocks, the hand of a consummate master of geological investigation is to be traced. His name has become a household word in geology, and will go down to future ages as that of ot of the great pioneers of the science.

Murchison, during all his scientific career, was closel associated with the Geological Society, and took a kee personal interest in its welfare. By his will he left a sum of money to found a medal and fund to be gives annually for the reward and encouragement of geologic research. This year the medal was awarded to Prof. A H. Green, of Oxford, and the balance of the fund to Mr. Beeby Thomson. An interesting proof of the ame tionate regard entertained for Murchison's memory w2 afforded by an announcement made by the Presider He stated that, a few days before the meeting, an o friend of Murchison, who desired to remain unknow had come to him and asked to be allowed to offer a sligh tribute in remembrance of the man and his work, on h centenary, at the anniversary meeting of the Society The President was requested to select two geologists & preference Scotsmen) who were carrying on geolog work in Murchison's spirit, and seeking to advance the special branches of research to which he devoted himsel and to present to each of them a cheque for with a framed portrait of the author of the "Silur System." Sir Archibald Geikie said that the task a signed to him was made comparatively easy by the ter of the generous gift. He had no doubt that the Sore would agree with him that there were pre-eminently is Scottish geologists marked out as recipients of this bat faction, who were disciples of Murchison, and voi carrying on his work, but with no slavish obedience ?* the opinions of their master, and who, by their comer work, alike with hammer and pen, well deserved this expected and appropriate reward-Mr. B. N. Peach in Mr. John Horne. As a touching addition to this pleasin incident, we have since learnt that while the annivers was being held at Burlington House, the faithful fric who had made this offering to Murchison's memor was engaged in the cemetery at Brompton caref brushing and washing his tomb. Driving snow falling at the time from a gloomy sky, in strange contra with the glow of affection that was piously the inscription that records the name and resting-plair of one of the great leaders of modern geology

renovati

H. W. BATES, THE NATURALIST OF THE

AMAZONS.

HENRY WALTER BATES was a native of Leice

and was engaged in his father's warehouse piz about the year 1845, he made the acquaintance of Alles Russel Wallace, then English master in the Collegiat

Hirst received a cordial welcome from the mathematicians of Southern Italy, and then going north he followed the victorious armies as far as San Martino and Solferino. After the Peace of Villafranca he visited the town of Cremona, and here commenced an acquaintance of lifelong duration with Prof. Luigi Cremona.

In 1860, Dr. Hirst took up his residence in London, and for a short time took the advanced mathematical classes in University College School, in consequence of Mr. Cook's illness, and on that gentleman's death he became his successor. This office Dr. Hirst held for five years, and here, with Prof. Key's full concurrence (see Dr. Hirst's preface to Wright's "Elements of Plane Geometry," 1868), he taught geometry to classes of beginners without the use of "Euclid." Subsequently, in 1870, at the request of the Ladies' Educational Association, he gave a course of twenty-four lectures on the subject of geometry to a class of sixty ladies at St. George's Hall. The syllabus of these lectures was printed at the time. He was so well satisfied with the results of his attempt that when, in 1871, the Association for the Improvement of Geometrical Teaching was started, though he had taken no part, directly, in its formation,1 he at once gave in his adhesion to the movement, and contributed very materially to its success, by his accepting the office of President, and by his doing yeoman's service during his tenure of the office (1871-78). Previous to this Dr. Hirst had, in 1865, been elected Professor of Mathematical Physics in University College. This post he vacated in 1867, when he succeeded Prof. de Morgan in the Chair of Pure Mathematics. It was on January 16, 1865, that the London Mathematical Society was started. Of this Society Dr. Hirst was one of the pillars, and it was in a great measure through his fostering care that it has made the mark it has. He served on the Council from 1865 to November 1885, and for the session 1890-91. He vacated the office of Treasurer when he was elected President for the years 1872-73, 1873-74.

In 1870, Dr. Hirst was appointed to the new office of Assistant Registrar to the University of London, and thereupon resigned his Professorship, and the General Secretaryship of the British Association, which he had held from 1866. In 1873, when the Royal Naval College was founded, he became the Director of Studies, and held the office for ten years, when the precarious state of his health necessitated his retirement, and the passing of several winters abroad. He died on February 16.

In 1861, Dr. Hirst was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. He was three times a member of the Council of the Society, and twice one of its Vice-Presidents. In 1883 one of the Royal Medals was awarded to him for his investigations in pure geometry; and, more particularly for his researches into the correlation of two planes and into the complexes generated by them." He was a Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society, a member of the Physical Society, and of several Continental Societies. He served for some years on the Council of University College, London, and was also a member of the Senate of the University of London.

Dr. Hirst revised the mathematical articles in Brande's "Dictionary of Arts and Sciences," and contributed new ones; and published a translation of Clausius's treatise on "The Mechanical Theory of Heat" (1867).

:

The following titles of papers may be mentioned :"On the Volumes of Pedal Surfaces" (Phil. Trans., 1863; Crelle, lxii., 1863; and Tortolini, Annali, v., 1863). "On the Quadric Inversion of Plane Curves" (R.S. Proc., 1865; cf. Chasles, “ Rapport,” p. 167, “ Ce mémoire est un travail fort complet "). This was his first purely geometrical paper. It was translated by Cremona in the

1 Opening remarks in the Presidential Address, A. I.G.T., First Report, January 17, 1871 (cf. als) NATURE, vol. ii. pp. 65, 141, 164). Memoir of Augustus de Morgan, pp. 280-86.

Annali di Matematica (vii., 1865), and a form of s published in the Nouvelles Annales (v., 1866). His s maining papers, mainly contributed to the Lond Mathematical Society's Proceedings, are:-" On Corre tion in Space" (abstract of Presidential Address, Proc., vi.). Note on the Correlation of Two Plats (Proc., viii.). "On Cremonian Congruences" (Proc., v "On Congruences of the Third Crder and Chie (Proc., xvi.). "On Cremonian Congruences containe Linear Complexes" (Proc., xvii.). "On the Correlat of Two Spaces, each of Three Dimensions" (Proc., r "On the Complexes generated by Two Correla Planes: (Chelini Memorial Volume, 1881). "Sur Congruence Roccella" (Circolo Matematico, 1886.

DR. THOMAS STERRY HUNT.

Born o

DR. T. STERRY HUNT, who died at New York the 12th of this month, in his sixty-sixth year, 2 widely known from his geological works, especially the relating to chemical geology. For some years past had been in feeble health, suffering much from hear disease. Early in this year he was attacked with infa enza, from which he seemed to be recovering, bet relapse occurred, from which he failed to rally. September 6, 1826, at Norwich, in Connecticut, he wa educated for the medical profession, but in 1845 became assistant to Prof. B. Silliman at Yale College, and w also chemist to the Geological Survey of Vermont. 1847 he joined the Geological Survey of Canada, under Sir W. Logan, as chemist and mineralogist. From 125 to 1862 he was Professor of Chemistry at Laval Urversity in Quebec, giving his lectures in French. From 1872 to 1878 he was Professor of Geology at the Mass chusetts Institute of Technology. He was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1859, and in 1881 receive. the honorary degree of LL.D. at Cambridge. Dr. H was one of the founders of the International Geologic Congress at Philadelphia, in 1876; he attended the meetings of the Congress at Paris in 1878, Bologna 1881, Berlin in 1885, and London in 1888, taking 2 active part in the proceedings of each.

Although by birth a citizen of the United States, he : best known as a Canadian geologist, and, after retir from the Canadian Survey, he lived for some years Montreal. But latterly he preferred to consider hims once more as belonging to the United States, and for. few years before his death was a resident in New York

Dr. Hunt's most important geological work was dere in connection with the Geological Survey of Canad with and under Logan. They led the way in the study the Archæan rocks of that area, and Hunt gave to the many of the names which have since become well know: and too widely used, in the Archæan controversy. Ha work on the geology of petroleum was of high value, ar he long ago clearly stated generalizations as to its occur rence which later investigations, over wider areas r North America and in other districts, have fully verified Other important researches, published in the offica Reports of the Canadian Survey and elsewhere, related to limestone, dolomite, and gypsum; salt; the chemistry of natural waters; the porosities of rocks; rock-weather ing, &c. The well-known "Geology of Canada," issued by Logan in 1863 as Director of the Survey, was in large part written by Hunt, the parts on lithology and or economic geology being almost entirely his; he likewise read the proofs of the whole. He also wrote much oc Alpine and Italian geology, and on the classification o the older Palæozoic rocks; in the Cambro-Silurian cortroversy he was a warm advocate of Sedgwick. The origin of serpentine was also a favourite subject, be stoutly maintaining its aqueous origin. As regards the ancient crystalline rocks generally, he to a large extent