III. ASIA.

1. AREA AND POPULATION OF ASIA-Independent States and EUROPEAN DEPENDENCIES. Asia is both in point of area and population the first among the large divisions of the world. It somewhat exceeds America in area, while it has more than twice as many inhabitants as Europe, the second division of the world in point of population. As regards civilization, prosperity and power, Asia is far inferior to Europe, America and Australia. Fully one-half of Asia is governed by the European powers of Russia, Great Britain, Turkey, France, Spain, the Netherlands and Portugal, and the aggregate territory of these European possessions is steadily enlarging. Russia and Great Britain are from different directions advancing into Central Asia, and but for their mutual jealousy, the whole of Independent Tartary, Affghanistan and Beloochistan would have been subject to European control ere this. In Farther India, Great Britain and France have, of late, made great progress, and the three states of this country, Anam, Burmah and Siam are entirely at their mercy.

The Governments purely Asiatic which still are fully independent, are China, Japan, Persia and the States of Arabia. The latter have little intercourse with civilized nations, and most of them are but little known to us. According to the latest reports, a large number of the smaller Arabian states are becoming absorbed by the empire of the Wahabees, which is rapidly growing and may, ere long, embrace the whole of Arabia (see Arabia). Since the beginning of the pres ent century, Persia has lost a considerable portion of its territory, which has been conquered by Russia. China and Japan are the only Asiatic countries in which there are signs of progress, In these countries, commercial and diplomatic intercourse with European and American nations has begun an era of reconstruction which bids fair to bring them fully within the circle of civilized nations.

In no country of Asia is Christianity the prevailing religion. There are about 8,486,000 people connected with the Eastern Churches, 4,695,000 connected with the Roman Catholic Church, and 713,000 connected with Protestant Churches. But about one-half of the whole of Asia is under Christian rulers, and Christianity is everywhere making progress. The prevailing religions of Asia are Buddhism, with a population of about 360,000,000, Brahmaism, with a population of from 124,000,000 to 140,000,000, and Mohammedanism, with a population of about 79,000,000. 2. THE STATES AND SMALLER DIVISIONS OF ASIA.

Area, 198,043 square miles. Population, 9,000,000.

Anam is one of the political divisions of Farther India, the others being Burmah and Siam. There are no official statements of area and population. By some writers, the population is

*These five States are comprised in Independent Tartary. A considerable portion of it has of late been annexed to Russia.

estimated as high as 27,000,000; according to Behm, (Geograph. Jahrbuch) it is about 9,000,000, exclusive of the French possessions in Cochin China. The latter now consist of 6 provinces, three of which were ceded to France in 1862, and three in 1867. France has also established a protectorate over Cambodja, another part of this country. The present Emperor of Anam is Tu-Duc (since 1847). The divisions of Anam are Tonquin, Cochin China, and Cambodja. The Emperor has about 800 war-craft, and monopolizes by means of larger vessels, the foreign trade of his dominions. The inhabitants are Buddhists, excepting about 400,000 who are Roman Catholic Christians.

2. ARABIA.

Area, 1,026,040 square miles. Population, 4,000,000,

Arabia comprises a number of independent states, many of which are not even known to us by name. Arab geographers make the following seven divisions: 1. Bahr-el-Tour-Sinai (Desert of Mount Sinai). 2. The Hedjaz (Land of Pilgrimage). 3. Tehama and Yemen, along the Red Sea. 4. Hadramant, the region along the southern coast. 5. Oman, the kingdom of Muscat. 6. Bahrein, on the Persian Gulf. 7. Nedjed, the central desert region. The most important of these divisions are Yemen and Oman.

Yemen has its seat of government at Sana, in the center of the country, and also possesses two very important commercial towns, Mocha and Loheia, situated on the coast of the Red Sea. The Imaum (ruler) of Muscat is by far the most powerful sovereign in Arabia, and claims authority over the whole of Oman, the islands of the Persian Gulf, and a vast extent of territory on the east coast of Africa, including some valuable islands. The city of Muscat is the largest on the south-east coast. Rostak is another large town inland from Muscat. The Kingdom of Muscat forms to some extent an exception to the general lack of manufacturing activity exhibited by the Arabians, having manufactures of silk and cotton turbans and sashes, canvas, arms, gunpowder, etc. In 1868, the Imaum of Muscat was dethroned and succeeded by the Chief of the Wahabees. This is a sect of Mohammedans which originated in the 17th century, and endeavored to establish Mohammedanism in its ancient purity. The sect has of late obtained control of a large portion of Central Arabia, and having now added Muscat to its dominions, constitutes undoubtedly the most powerful state in Arabia. The district of Hedjaz contains the holy cities of Mecca and Medina, with their seaports, Jeddah and Yambo.

3. BRITISH INDIA.

Capital, Calcutta. Area, 1,545,336 square miles. Population, 192,012,137. The total area and population of India are as follows, according to returns of 1867:

Not belonging to British India, but more or less under the control of the Indian Government:

According to the official "Statistical Abstract," just issued, the area of British India is somewhat less, viz: 947,292 square miles, and the population, 143,585,789: of native or Indian States under French government, 188 square miles, with a population of 203,887: under Portuguese government, 1,066 square miles, with 313,262 population: making a grand total of 1,545,336 square miles, with a population of 192,012,137. The largest cities in India are: Calcutta, having about 1,000,000 inhabitants, including both the English and Hindoo population of the city and its suburbs: Bombay has 816,562. For others, see "List of Large Cities of the World."

Government. The present form of the government of the Indian Empire dates from 1858. All the territories previously under the government of the East India Company are vested in the Sovereign of Great Britain, and all its powers are exercised in his name, through the Secretary of State for India. The executive authority in India is vested in a Governor-General, appointed by the Crown. He has power to make laws and regulations for all persons. The present Governor-General of India is Earl MAYO, appointed in 1868.

Education. In the North-Western Provinces and Madras, the foundation of a national system of education has been laid, but the Government has as yet made little impression upon the lower classes of the people. At the head of the educational institutions is the University of Calcutta. The average attendance of pupils in the schools and colleges was, in 1866, 559,317. Finances. The financial state of the Indian Empire has undergone immense changes in recent years, both the revenue and the expenditure having nearly doubled since 1851. The rev. enue amounted, in 1865-66 to £47,041,000, the expenditure, to £47,021,000, the surplus being £20,000. There was, however in reality, a deficit of £50,000, the receipts amounting only to £46,750,000 and the expenditure to £46,800,000. The estimated budget for 1867-68 states a revenue of £46,283,000, an expenditure of £47,340,000, a deficit of £1,057,000. By far the most important source of revenue is the land. The gross receipt from this source, including tribute, is stated at £23,467,700. Next in importance is the income derived from the opium monopoly, which is more than sufficient to pay the interest of the public debt of India. The amount of this debt was, Apr. 30, 1866, £85,835,957. The "charges," including interest on debt and public works, amount to £36,238,415. The accounts for the present financial year show a surplus of £800,000.

Army. The number of European troops in India at the beginning of 1866, was 65,292 men, and the native troops at the same date were 113,370 men.

Commerce. The total value of the imports and exports, including treasure, was as follows in 1865: Bengal and British Burmah, imports, £18,592,218, exports, £20,948,703: Madras, imports, £4,262,689, exports, £6,920,187: Bombay, imports, £26,659,368, exports, £41,602,901: total imports, £49,514,275, exports, £69,471,791. In 1866, the imports amounted to £56,160,000, and the exports to £67,660,000. There are 8 great railway companies. The total length of the "East Indian Railway" is about 1,500 miles. The total length of all the lines open, May 1, 1866, was 3,332. On May 1, 1867, 349 miles of new railway had been opened for traffic, making the total extent of lines now open, 3,943 miles. In 1867, the number of passengers was 13,746,354. There were 2,070 post offices. The mails were conveyed over 46,997 miles, and consisted of 60,000,000 of letters and newspapers. From 1857 to 1866, the length of telegraphs in British India increased from 4,162 miles to 13,390 miles. At the end of 1866, £65,870,712 had been expended on railroads. The vessels, including native craft, entered and cleared at ports of British India, numbered 58,401, of 7,621,384 tons; 36,491 were native vessels. The import of merchandise, in 1865–66, amounted to £29,599,228, of treasure, to £26,557,301, of raw cotton, to £35,587,389, and of opium, to £11,122746. Over 13,000,000 lbs. of cotton were shipped from Bombay in December, 1867, and 27,139,868 lbs. during February, 1868.

4. BURMAH.

Capitals, Ava and Monchobo. Area, 190,517 square miles. Population, 4,000,000. Burmah was formerly the most extensive and powerful of the states of Farther India, but since the war with Great Britain (1824 to 1826), its territory has been considerably reduced. It is composed of the kingdoms of Burmah, Pegu and Pong, with portions of the countries inhabited by the Khyen, and the Shan countries.

The government is hereditary and despotic. The sovereign is assisted by a council of the nobility, over whom he has a kind of feudal jurisdiction; the titles of the nobility are not hereditary. Education, so far as reading and writing is concerned, is more common than in most of the Asiatic States. Public revenue is derived from a tithe of the profit of cultivation, duties of ten per cent. on imports and five per cent. on exports, royal monopolies of marble, amber, precious metals and gems above a certain size. The Empire is divided into 7 provinces. Ava and Monchobo have alternately been constituted the capital of the Empire. Among the other principal towns are Amarapure, Sakaing, Rangoon, Bassain, Martaban, Setang, Taungo, Prome, Patango, Yandabo, and Bhamo. Burmah is the seat of flourishing American Baptist Missions, with about 300 native preachers, 16,000 members, and a mission press at Rangoon, which during the year ending 1865, printed 171,900 copies of books and tracts, mostly in the native languages.

5. CEYLON.

Area, 24,705 square miles. Population, 2,049,728.

Government. The administration is in the hands of a Governor, aided by an Executive Council of 5 members, and a Legislative Council of 15 members. The present Governor of Ceylon is Sir H. Robinson.

The public revenue and expenditure of this Colony in 1866, was as follows: Revenue, £968,000; expenditure, £918,000. Rather more than one-third of the revenue is derived from import and export duties. The trade and commerce of Ceylon has greatly expanded in recent years, having more than trebled from 1857 to 1864. The total imports in 1866, amounted to £4,960,000, while the total exports amounted to £3,590,000.

6. CHINA.

Capital, Pekin. Area, 4,695,334 square miles. Population, 477,500,000.

The Empire is divided into 18 provinces. While the tributary States are very thinly popula ted, China proper is one of the most densely peopled countries of the world. The chief cities are, Soochow, about 2,000,000 inhabitants; Pekin, 1,648,814. (For the other large cities see the list of large cities of the world).

Sovereign. The reigning Emperor, KI-TSIANG, born April 5, 1855, son of the Emperor Hienfung, succeeded his father Aug. 22, 1861. He is the 8th emperor of the Tartar dynasty of Tatsing, which succeeded to the native dynasty of Ming in 1644.

Government. The Emperor is spiritual as well as temporal Sovereign. The administration of the Empire is under the supreme direction of the "Interior Council Chamber," comprising 4 members and 2 assistants from the “Great College." The fundamental laws are contained in the sacred books of Confucius. There are 8 boards of Government, the present chief of which is Prince Kong. Independent of the Government, and theoretically above the central administration, is the Board of Public Censors; it consists of 40 to 50 members; all the members of this board are privileged to present any remonstrance to the Sovereign. There are five degrees of nobility. The civil mandarins (about 15,000) are divided into two classes, from the first of which the ministers of State are taken, and from the second of which are filled the minor offices of the empire. The military mandarins number about 20,000 men, distributed into five classes.

Finances. The estimates of the public revenue of China are variable and conflicting. Offcial returns of the Government are not trustworthy; according to the latest published returns, the revenue amounted to 192,000,000 taels (-£64,000,000), of which the land-tax in money and kind amounted to 167,000,000 taels.

Army. There are no official reports on army and navy. According to recent estimates the army consists nominally of 4 divisions, of the total strength of 600,000 men, scattered all over the empire, besides about 200,000 irregular troops (Tartars). The soldiers pursue as chief business some civil occupation in their own houses; a standing army, in the European sense of the word, does not exist.

Commerce. By the terms of the commercial treaty of Nanking in 1842, 5 ports of the empire were opened to European trade: Canton, Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo and Shanghai. To these ports were subsequently (in 1858) added 8 others: Swatow, Tientsin, Che-foo, Hankow, Kinkiang, Chin-kiang, Formosa, and New-chang. The relative importance of these 13 gates of Chinese commerce is shown in the following table, which gives the total value of the imports and exports of each in 1864:

In the movement of ships there were about 19,000 vessels of a burthen of 6,000,000 tons, 6,852 of which were British, 5,355 American, and 320 French.

The port of Shanghai exported, in November, 1865, 347,718 pieces of cotton goods; and in the period from June 1 to Nov. 30, 1866, 20,337 bales of silk; 242,000 piculs of black, and 33,000

of green tea. The total value of merchandise exported in 1865, in the inland trade of China with Russia, by way of Kiachta, amounted to 8,000,000 silver roubles (-4 francs); the value of goods imported from Russia, was 7,750,000. The number of American vessels entered in Shanghai for the quarter ending Sept. 30, 1868, was 122, with a tonnage of 129,298; the value of imports amounted to 14,735,000 taels, that of exports to 5,487,000 taels (1 tael-$1.60). Tea, silk, &c., shipped to the United States for same time, $201,498. The estimated total value of trade carried on under foreign flags in 1866, amounted to 299,929,541 taels. The total estimated value of foreign imports and coastwise, was 172,462,136 taels in 1866, to which Great Britain contributed 31,757,249 taels, the United States 289,882, and the Chinese ports, coastwise, 95,531,355. The amount of tea exported in 1866 was 1,183,042 piculs (1 picul-133 lbs.) The import of opium for local consumption, at the open ports, increased in 1866 to 64,576 piculs, of the estimated value of 34,838,640 taels; there were also imported grey shirtings, 2,182,602 pieces, and sugar, 1,556,899 piculs.

China is traversed in all directions by 20,000 imperial roads, most of which, however, are in bad condition. There are extensive coal fields in China.

The Chinese Government is (1868) negotiating treaties with the prominent civilized nations. It has conceded the privilege of connecting the great seaports of the empire by submarine telegraph cable. These ports have a foreign commerce of $900,000,000, besides an immense internal trade.

7. JAPAN.

Capital, Yeddo. Area, 149,399 square miles. Population, 35,000,000.

The number of foreigners settled in Japan is as yet very small. Several ports have been opened to aliens, Kanagawa, Nagasaki, Osaka, Hiogo, Hakodaki. The laws of Japan are severe and sanguinary. The chief cities are Yeddo, 1,554,848 inhabitants, Osaka, about 1,000,000, and Miaco, 600,000.

Government. The head of the State is the "Mikado" or Emperor: but for many centuries the administration has been almost wholly in the hands of a hereditary Tycoon. In 1868, after a war between the Tycoon Stotsbashi (since 1866), and the young Mikado (since 1867), the Mikado resumed the administration of the Empire, and abolished the Tycoonate. The actual government is vested in a number of feudal princes, or "Daimios," proprietors of a more or less extensive territory, over which they exercise absolute sway. The administration of the Empire is carried on by two Councils of State. The Mikado has recently convoked a Parliament of the Daimios and Councillors selected without regard to rank.

Army. The Daimios are stated to keep up an effective army of 368,000 infantry and 38,000 cavalry, forming the Federal army. The Imperial army formerly kept by the Tycoon, reached the nominal figure of 100,000 infantry and 20,000 cavalry. The reconstruction of the government will require a reorganization of the army.

Commerce. The trade of Japan with foreign countries showed a remarkable expansion in 1865. The total imports brought to Japan by British vessels alone amounted to $11,560,509, and the imports in other vessels to $2,634,262. The exports in British vessels amounted to $16,186,823; and the exports in other foreign vessels to $2,303,407. The increase in the value of exports was owing chiefly to the great rise in the price of Japanese silks. The internal trade of Japan is very extensive. There were imported into Osaka, in 1866, salt, 916,270 bags: charcoal, 1,253,880 bags: wood, 921,540 bundles: mats (rough), 105,000 packages. Total of merchant vessels, 1,843.

8. JAVA.

The area of Java, the most important of the Asiatic possessions of the Netherlands, including Madura, embraces 51,336 square miles, with a population (in 1865), of 14,168,416. The population has trebled since 1816, when the British Government restored the colony to the Netherlands. Slavery was abolished in 1860. The bulk of the people are held in strict subjugation as agricultural laborers.

Government. Java is governed in an absolute manner. It is divided into 24 provinces, each governed by a President. The executive is in the hands of a Governor-General, who is assisted by a Council of 5 members.

Java furnished to the Netherlands a large surplus revenue, after paying for its own government, principally by the sale of a vast amount of colonial produce.