mation of a cumulus cloud. If its borders are sharply defined and its color is white, fair weather is likely to continue; otherwise, rain is likely to fall, and often with the accompaniment of thunder and lightning. Some writers believe that the similarly electrified state of the cloud-particles causes them to repel one another. When, by a lightning-flash in any direction, the electrization is neutralized, drops form and rain descends; this may explain the sudden dash of rain which often follows a flash of lightning. Finally, the cloud dissipates, leaving only streaks of cirrus in the upper air and some flecks of scud below. The cumulus often forms without a shower, forming, as Tyndall expresses it, the capital of a vast column of ascending warm air. This lissolves at night or subsides into loose stratus. The cumuli are most frequent in summer, when they are apt to appear and grow in the morning, attain their highest elevation at the warmest hour of the day, and descend afterward. Their thickness is from 1300 to 1700 feet; their height, from 1500 to 10,000. At night the clouds descend nearest to the ground.

Clouds are very mobile and readily move before the winds; yet there are some which do not progress. These are such as the mountain-streamers or caps, and banks of cloud suspended over water from which rises a stream of moist air. On such clouds a heavy wind seems to have no effect. They are, in reality, constantly dissipated and constantly renewed. The moisture of the warm air grows visible on touching the cold peak or on account of the passage of the cold wind through it.

As to the distribution of clouds, it depends entirely upon the distribution of saturated air and the existence of conditions favoring rapid variations in aërial temperature. These conditions occur most commonly over the oceans and the contiguous portions of continents, and least so in the continental regions farthest removed from the ocean whence come the prevailing winds. If mountain-chasms intervene, the result is most pronounced. The winds are drained more and more of their moisture as they pass inward, so that more rapid and extreme variations of temperature are necessary to produce cloud and rain; and eventually they become so dry that no change of temperature can cause a condensation of their remaining moisture. These are the regions of cloudless skies and desert soils. Elsewhere the cloud conditions depend largely on the direction of the wind. On our Atlantic coast, for instance, the north-east are the cloud-bringing winds; the northwest, the precursors of clear skies. The southerly winds are intermediate in results, as are other combinations.

(C. M.)

CLOVER. See FORAGE CROPS. CLUSERET, GUSTAVE PAUL, a French soldier and Communist, born in Paris, June 13, 1823. He was the son of a colonel of infantry in the French army, and was entered at the military school of St. Cyr in 1841. After finishing his course he was appointed sub-lieutenant, and in 1848 was a full lieutenant. He took part with the Garde Mobile, and as commander in the Twentythird battalion was distinguished in the attack on the barricades. On the 28th of July he received the decoration of the Legion d'Honneur. In 1850 he was a lieutenant in the Fifty-fifth regiment of the line, and when the coup d'état was made he, with more than a thousand other officers, was suspended from active service. In 1855 he was appointed a captain of chasseurs and attached to the Arabian bureau of Algerian affairs, in which he was active and valuable. His restless spir..,

however, caused him to resign and join Garibaldi in his efforts for Italian independence. In this service he was promoted, after the taking of Capua, to the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and upon the conquest of Sicily and the capture of Naples he was transferred to the staff. At the first sounds of the civil war in the United States he resigned and embarked for America, where he espoused the Union cause, and served as aid to Gen. Fremont and Gen. McClellan, attaining the rank of brigadier-general of volunteers. In 1864 he established a newspaper in New York in the interest of Gen. Fremont's candidacy for the office of President. This enterprise came to an end when Gen. Fremont withdrew his name in favor of Mr. Lincoln, and in 1868 Cluseret returned to Europe to join the Fenians. In the attack on Chester Castle in 1867 he is said to have taken part under the assumed name of Aulif. He escaped to France, but, notwithstanding his vehement denial, he was condemned to death by the English courts, upon his non-appearance, for contumacy. In Paris, where he took up his residence, he wrote articles for the Courrier Français on the situation in the United States, which attracted attention, and political papers in a journal called L'Art, which he established. These latter were condemned by the Government, and he was detained for a time in Sainte-Pélagie. While there he conspired with the leaders of the International Commune. He was soon released, and in 1869 he issued, in the pages of La Democratie, Le Rappel, and La Tribune, a series of violent articles on the condition of affairs ir France, and especially on the organization of the army. Upon the issue of a warrant to apprehend him, it was found that he was a naturalized citizen of the United States, and as such he claimed the protec tion of Mr. Washburne, the U. S. minister. He was ordered to leave France. He was now fully embarked in the International cause, and upon the fall of the Second Empire in 1870 he declared that the fortunate chance for the Commune had arrived that they must have Paris or destroy it. The revolution of Sept. 4 brought him back to Paris, where he at once assumed the charge of the paper called La Marseillaise; but an article called "La Reaction," directed against the Government of the national defence, caused him to be repudiated by his own partisans; even Rochefort denounced him. Thereupon he retired from Paris to take part in the insurrection at Lyons. Thence he went to Marseilles, where he proclaimed himself as military commander in the south of France. Failing, by a large adverse majority, to be returned as member of the Assembly, he was on his return to Paris elected a member of the Commune, but in his dealings with his party he was so haughty, dogmatic, and extreme that he was deposed and arrested. He was confined at Mazas, and only liberated when the French army entered Paris and overthrew the Commune on the 24th of May. He was then concealed for five months by a friendly priest, and in November contrived to escape, first to England, and thence to America. The third council of war condemned him to death for contumacy on Aug. 30, 1872. His principal work, entitled The Army and Democracy, was published in 1869. (H. C.)

CLYDE, a village in Sandusky co., Ohio, is at the intersection of the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railroad with the Ohio division of the Wabash, St. Louis, and Pacific Railroad, and on the Wheeling and Lake Erie Railroad, 17 miles S. W. of Sandusky. It has a bank, three hotels, six churches, good schools, a weekly and a bi-weekly newspaper, and two monthly

periodicals. It has two grain-elevators, two flourmills, an organ-factory, and manufactures of cutlery, etc. Gen. James B. McPherson was a resident of this village, and there is a fine bronze statue of him in the village cemetery. Population, 2380.

CLYDE, a town of New York, in Wayne county, and in the township of Galen, is on the New York Central Railroad, and on the Erie Canal, 38 miles W. of Syracuse. It is also on the New York, Buffalo and West Shore Railroad. It has a weekly newspaper, six churches, a free reading-room, a union school, an academy, two hotels, and two banks. Its industries comprise manufactures of glass, farm-implements, flour, lumber, and steam-engines. There are also six malt-houses and a fruit-cannery. Population, 2826. COADJUTOR is the name give in the Roman

Edin. ed.).

Catholic Church, to a clergyman appointed to assist a bishop in the performance of his episcopal duties. He is named by the pope at the personal request of the one needing an assistant, or on the nomination of the prelates of a province. He receives the episcopal consecration and the title of a see in partibus infidelium. The principal reasons for asking for a coadjutor are age, infirmity, extent of territory, extraordinary increase of population, other offices in the service of the Church or State. When the coadjutor-bishop is appointed "with future succession," he is properly called coadjutor;" but when appointed merely during the lifetime of the senior prelate, to relieve him of some of the burdens of governing his diocese, he is more properly called a "bishop suffragan" or "bishop aux iliary.' (R. 8.)

THE earliest record of coal in America is by Father See Vol VI. try in America (London, 1698). On the map p. 43 Am. prefixed he marks a "cole-mine" above Fort ed. (p. 45 Crevecœur, on the Illinois River, near the site of the present city of Ottawa. "In this country," he says, there are mines of coal, slate, and iron," evidently referring not to workings, but to beds of these substances appearing on the surface. The first coal-working in America was in the Richmond (Va.) coal-field about 1750. In 1775 and during the Revolution this fuel was used in the Richmond forges which made arms and ammunition for the American army, but it does not appear to have been sent away from that region before 1789, when shipments were made to Philadelphia, New York, and Boston. This coal was quarried from banks exposed to daylight. The Rhode Island anthracite was known in 1760, but the Portsmouth mine, which appears to have been the first, was not opened until 1808. Pennsylvania anthracite was known as early as 1766, and was used in 1768 by two blacksmiths named Gore who had been familiar with the use of coal in England. Settling in the Wyoming Valley, they found coal cropping out on the hillsides, and used it successfully in their forges. In 1776 several boatloads of anthracite coal were sent from Wyoming down the Susquehanna, and thence hauled to the Carlisle Barracks to manufacture arms. This practice was kept up during the Revolutionary War, and after that anthracite continued in use by the blacksmiths in the neighborhood of the Susquehanna; but it was not used for domestic purposes till 1808, when Judge Jesse Fell of Wilkesbarre made an experimental grate of hickory withes, and found he could get a satisfactory open grate-fire of anthracite. He then made an iron grate, and used it habitually.

In 1791 coal was discovered at Summit Hill in the Lehigh district by Philip Ginter, a hunter, and in the following year the Lehigh Coal Company was formed by Robert Morris, the distinguished financier of the American Revolution, and a number of his friends. They dug out the coal, and in the course of years got some as far as Philadelphia, but it would not sell because it could not be burned. Some of it was purchased by the city of Philadelphia for the use of a steam-engine at the waterworks, then at Broad and Market Streets, but was finally broken up and strewn on the paths of the surrounding grounds. Yet experiments with the "stone

lands

fuel" or "stone coal" continued, and the owners of use. They remained without success until 1812, when Col. George Shoemaker took nine wagon-loads of coal from the Schuylkill region, near Pottsville, to Philadelphia. Like his predecessors, he had great difficulty in selling his coal, but finally disposed of two or three loads at the cost of hauling, and left the rest with different persons for experiment. One load went to the Fairmount Wire and Nail Works, where the workmen spent a whole forenoon in fruitless attempts to start a fire with it. At last they closed the furnace-doors and went to dinner; returning an hour later, they found the doors red hot and the furnace all aglow. After that there was no more trouble in either burning or selling anthracite.

In 1814, Charles Miner sent an ark loaded with 24 tons of coal from Mauch Chunk, via the Lehigh and the Delaware, to Philadelphia, and in 1820, when the navigation of the former river was improved, 365 tons were shipped and the trade fully established. Two years later the Schuylkill Navigation Company transported by their canal to Philadelphia 1480 tons. We find in 1829 the Delaware and Hudson Canal shipping 7000 tons; in 1833, the Union Canal of Pennsylvania 3500 tons; in 1834, the Lykens Valley Coal Company 4780 tons; and in 1839, the Shamokin Valley Coal Company 11,390 tons.

COAL IN THE UNITED STATES.

The coal-deposits of the United States (Plate VIII.) exceed in area, in the quantity of coal contained, and in the variety and general excellence of their fuel, those of any other country in the world. The coal ranges from the hardest anthracite-which, indeed, is found in perfection only here-through all the gradations down to lignite and peat, while much of the lignite, which covers an immense portion of the Western States and Territories, is so far superior to the lignites of the Old World that it has been assigned to a separate class and called "lignitic coal."

Distribution and Species.-The main deposits of anthracite coal are situated in Eastern Pennsylvania, but this variety is also found in Massachusetts and Rhode Island, Virginia, North Carolina, and Arkansas. Some of the lignitic coals of Colorado and New Mexico are similar to anthracite in analysis and appearance.

Bituminous coal occurs in Pennsylvania, Maryland,