is 300 feet below the surface. At Leavenworth, and 12 that portion of the State, shafts have been sunk 710 feet before finding coal. The Kansas coal is a good bituminous, does not crumble, and differs from most Western coals in being remarkably free from sulphur. In Western Kansas there are thick beds of brown coal. The beds crop out west of Salina, in Saline county. They are from 3 to 7 feet thick. Prof. Swallow, State geologist, gives the following summary section of the coal-measures of Kansas: 1. Lower Carboniferous formation..... 2. Lower coal series, contains 24 layers, 5 beds of coal-(1) 6 to 10 in., (2) 3 ft., (3) 2 to 4 in., (4) 2 to 6 in., (5) 5 to 7 in...... 3. Fort Scott marble series, 7 layers-coal-bed 2 ft. 6 in........ 4. Fort Scott series, 12 layers, 2 coal-seams-6 ft. and 16 in........... 120 feet. 19 66 64 66 5. Pawnee limestone series, 9 layers-6 in. coal... 112 6. Marais des Cygnes series, 25 layers, 4 seams of coal-(1) 2 to 3 ft., (2) 1 ft. to 2 ft. 6 in., (3) 1 ft. 8 in. to 2 ft. 9 in., (4) 2 in..................... 303 7. Well Rock series, 11 layers-coal 1 to 5 in...... 238 8. Spring Rock series, 9 layers, 2 seams of coal-6 in. to 1 ft. and 4 to 8 in.... FIG. 31.-Map of Coal-field of Indian Territory. INDIAN TERRITORY.-Indian Territory has 13,600 square miles of coal-measures, with some good coal, but its character and other details have not been ascertained. At McAllister is an extensive bed of valuable bituminous coal. Within three miles of that place a plot of at least 1000 acres is worked by the Osage Mining Company, a Kansas corporation, and produces eighty cars of coal a day, all of which is sold to the Missouri, Kansas, and Texas Railroad, or shipped via the Missouri, Kansas, and Texas Railroad to Texas. It is a very superior gas coal. The vein is also worked at Savannah, ten miles south, and again crops out at Atoka, forty-five miles south, on the Missouri, Kansas, and Texas Railroad, and is known to stretch far to the east. The Choctaw Nation leases to the Osage com FIG. 32.-Map of Texas Coal-field. TEXAS.-An outspur of the great Missouri coal-field covers the north-eastern portion of the State of Texas for about 6000 square miles. This coal is a regular bituminous. The formation belongs to the Carboniferous age. It extends into Stephens and Young counties, where explorations have shown the presence of two beds, about 40 feet apart. Some beds are 3 feet in thickness, and others vary from 4 to 6 feet. The strata lie nearly horizontal and cover a very large area. The quality of the coal is not very good, being high in ash and full of sulphur. This coal-field extends south to the Colorado River. An analysis of this coal is added: Analysis of Coal, Young co., Texas. Moisture... ................................................ 1196 70 100-00 One bed run Lignites occupy large areas in Texas. south-west through the State, commencing at the Sabine River, 20 miles below the 32d parallel of north latitude and extending to the Rio Grande River. Another bed of lignite runs parallel to this through Cass county and on through Cherokee county. There is a small field of coal in Brown, Coleman, Comanche, and Hamilton counties. This is said to be a semi-anthracite. Good cannel coal is reported to be found in Webb county. It belongs to the Tertiary formation, and makes a good gas coal. LIGNITES AND LIGNITIC COAL The lignitic coals of the western portion of the Usited States are destined to play an important part in the industrial development of that part of the North American continent, as they are, with few exceptions. the only form of mineral fuel to be found west of the 100th meridian. Lignite is the stage next above peat in the formation of coal, and varies greatly in both appearance and chemical composition. Ita color varies from light yellow to deep brown or black. St writers restrict the term "lignite" to fuel which show a distinct woody structure, and make a separate variety of the more compact and higher grade between this and bituminous, which they call brown" coal. The distinction is more apparent in Europe than in America, as in this country the gradations are so minute as to make it almost impossible to say where the lignites end and the brown coals begin. As might be supposed from their intermediary position between peat and true coals, lignites belong to a later geological period than the Carboniferous. They occur principally in Cretaceous and Tertiary formations, but the beds, which often are of great thickness, present the same general characteristics as those of the true coals. Like them, each bed is underlaid by a and seam of fire-clay, the soil in which the plants grew, overlaid with shales and sandstones; and, like them, they are regularly interstratified with the surrounding rocks. Many instances occur, too, in which local causes have changed portions of lignite beds to bituminous, and even to anthracite, the coal in each case being simply a higher development of the lignite; showing that they are essentially the same substance. The figures in the column showing the approximate weight of a cubic foot of the several substances are instructive as indicating the joint effect of compression and of the gradual destruction of cellular structure in increasing the density of the product. American Lignitic Coal. coals" of Europe in holding a large amount of water, the The lignites of Western America resemble the "brown proportion of this ingredient in most of them being from 12 to 15 per cent., though some have as low as 4 and others as high as 20 per cent. They do not show a woody or Lignites of the Eastern Hemisphere. LIGNITES have been used in Europe for many years, though their inferior qualities as heat-producers make them less popular than the true coals. They are found in England, France, Germany, Spain, Switzerland, Greece, Scandinavia, Russia, Austria, and perhaps other European countries, as well as in the island of Madeira, in Greenland, Iceland, Asia Minor, Persia, Siberia, Thibet, India, Australia, Tasmania, and indeed in most parts of the globe. In many places black, with a very high lustre, resembling in appearfibrous structure, but are compact and generally where the geological formation makes the presence of lignites probable they have not yet been scught for, and they are, for practical purposes, almost identical. Only ance some of the bituminous coals; with which, indeed, in many other places they have been found, but not the geologist can distinguish between the best lignites worked. Some varieties emit a disagreeable smell and bituminous coal. The percentage of ash is low when burning; some, like the "Cologne earth" of Germany, crumble to powder when dried, and are used for ignites, varying from 2 to 6 per cent., while the as pigments. The following are analyses of European products driven off at a dull red heat vary from 25 to sulphur seldom reaches 1 per cent. The volatile and Australian lignites: TABLE XXVII.—Proximate Analyses of Western Lignitic Coals. Ultimate analyses give the true value of coal as a heat-producer. The "volatile matter" in proximate analyses includes some combined water that tends to diminish the heat. The nitrogen also is an impurity. The following table of analyses is from Prof. Rossiter W. Raymond: Weber Cañon, Utah..... 5.77 0.63 15.10 7330 1-74 1.68 1:07 17.10 5738 1.25 6.62 1.03 10.73 1.29 3:00 1.60 17:46 6578 5912 1.37 10.99 1.93 6400 2.73 21.82 1.96 15.69 37 per cent., and the amount of fixed carbon is from 45 to 60 per cent. They are superior to European lignites, but differ from the true coals, and hence are termed "lignitic coal." Hayden's Report of the U. S. Geological Survey of Colorado for 1873 gives tables of all reliable proximate analyses of these lignitic coals, and the preceding table is abstracted from them. (See Table XXVII.) As the heat-producing power of the coal is dependent on a chemical union of the atmospheric oxygen with the carbon and hydrogen in the coal, thus forming carbonic acid and water, the amounts of these products represent the amount of heat which has been produced as the result of their formation; while the ash and moisture present diminish the percentage of combustible ingredients and the heat-producing power of the whole, the moisture being a further disadvantage, as it requires a considerable amount of heat to expel it. These coals are found in a series of sandstone and fire-clay, probably of Lower Tertiary age. The fossils contained are chiefly leaves of deciduous trees. No ferns or fossil plants, like those common to the true coal-measures, are found in this formation. The coalbeds are often of great size, reaching a thickness of 27 feet on Bear River, Utah. They are remarkably free from impurities and without slate partings. Iron pyrites may be detected in small flakes and thin disks, All the coals tend to crumble after having been exposed to the weather, and this tendency to crumble is the cause of great waste at the mines. With rare excep tions, when submitted to the coking process they retain their form or crumble into a dry powder. As a fuel for locomotives and for domestic purposes the coal answers well. It kindles and burns freely, making a bright fire, with a yellow blaze and comparatively little smoke. The presence of iron pyrites in coals so easy to crumble as these, suggests the possibility of spontaneous combustion. 3:40 0-77 12.36 Ham's Fork of Green River cuts through Oyster Ridge two beds of coal have been opened; the upper is 10 feet thick, and contains 18 inches of fire-clay, 6 of hard sandstone, 72 of coal, 6 of soft fire-clay, and 18 of coal; or 7 feet 8 inches of coal in a 10-foot bed. The second bed is about 40 feet below this, and consists of 10 feet of coal, 6 inches of sandy clay, 1 foot 8 inches of dark slate and fire-clay, and 1 foot 8 inches of coal. The strike of these beds is nearly due north, and they dip westwardly 23 degrees. They are regular, and have been traced for several miles (fig. 34). A second series of beds appears in Coal Ridge, a hill parallel to Oyster Ridge and about 4 miles west of it. They first appear through the overlying Tertiary deposit 6 or 8 miles south of Bell's Pass, and rise gradually to about 300 feet above the valley of the north branch of the Little Muddy River. Observations taken at thirty-four shaftings located about 3 miles south of Bell's Pass show that the coal-beds underlie strata of fire-clay or sandstone, or both, varying in thickness from 3 to 100 feet, and averaging about 37 feet through the series. The beds themselves vary from 3 to 40 feet, averaging 11 feet throughout the series. The coal gen erally is of good quality, and but four or five of the whole series of beds must be regarded as certain to prove unprofitable in working, although in several instances coal has been reached without a thorough proof of the thickness of the deposit. In four shaftings the superincumbent strata are 300 feet in depth; in one, 200 feet. Several other beds, overlying the last of this series, were seen in other parts of this field, but not developed. The distances between the beds in the above section (see fig. 33) were estimated or taken from barometrical measurements, and are only approximate, as indeed the whole statement necessarily must be. It gives, however, an idea of the richness of this magnificent field. The beds have been traced for a distance of at least 10 miles in a north-and-south direction. The following are results of analyses of coals from Twin Creek. They are numbered according to their place in the series mentioned above: Moisture...... No. 1. Volatile matter...................36 177 Fixed carbon.... Ash WYOMING LIGNITIC COAL. The largest single deposit of coal yet discovered on the American continent is the Twin Creek coal in the Green River coal-basin, in Southwestern Wyoming, where the writer's explorations show 250 feet of coal in a thickness of about 3000 feet of measures. (See fig. 33.) The number of beds is not known, but twenty-two of workable thickness have been developed, and there are traces of nearly or quite as many more, most of which are supposed to be workable. On the line of the Utah and Wyoming Railroad, about 100 Color of ash. miles east of Corinne and 20 west of Ogden, two series of coal-deposits have been traced, which Dr. Hayden and Clarence King ascribe to the Cretaceous period2 notable exception to Dr. Hayden's theory that the Rocky Mountain lignites belong to the Tertiary formation. The first is in the Lower Fox Hill group, and the second in the Laramie group. South of where Moisture......... Volatile matter Fixed carbon.... Ash Color of ash........... .44.147 2.371 100'000 ....White. No. 18, Mouzilly. ...48'094 FIG. 33.-Cross-section of Coal Hill, Wyoming Territory [by W. S. Sheafer, M. E., 1880]. TABLE XXVIII.-Analyses of Lignitic Coals in Wyoming and Coal, 6 feet. Coal, 8 feet. Coal, 4 feet. "IV. Ham's Fork, Wyoming. "V. Bozeman, Montana. COLORADO LIGNITIC COAL.-At Golden City, 15 miles west from Denver, coal was first discovered in several small and vertical beds near together in the steep bank of Clear Creek, a half mile below where it passes out from the mountain. An extension of one of the beds toward the south was opened at the summit of the ridge. The bed was 10 to 14 feet thick, but irregular, sometimes pinching to a few inches, and then expanding to 8 or 10 feet. The average thickness is 5 feet. Two large coal-beds are opened at Ralston Creek, 5 miles north of Golden City. They lie in a vertical position, 25 feet apart. The upper or western bed has 9 feet of good coal, and the lower bed 14 feet. Marshall's mines are in the valley of South Boulder Creek, 22 miles from Denver. There are four coal-beds. The coal is brilliant. Lignitic coal has been found on both the east and west sides of the Platte River, but the only mines of importance are near the eastern foot of the Blue Hill range of mountains. The formation is a series of sandstones, ranging north and south, and along.its western margin is uptilted in a vertical position, sometimes dipping toward the metamorphic rocks that make up the steep mountain-slope. Away from the mountains the inclination is eastward and very gentle. The formation follows the mountain-range for an unlimited extent. In Hayden's Report will be found sections showing the series of beds at these mines. These coals analyze as follows (two samples): Coal, 12 feet. Coal, 16 feet. Volatile matter, expelled at red heat, form- .26.00 19.30 Fixed carbon ....... .59.20 58.70 Coal, 8 feet. Coal, 30 feet. Coal, 25 feet. Other openings in Colorado are the Wilson, Brigg, and Baker mines on Coal Creek. The coal-belt extends north into Wyoming Territory, but is not found east of the Black Hills. At Carbon, on the Union Pacific Railroad, in the Laramie Valley, 140 miles west of Cheyenne, the bed is 7 feet thick. (See Table XXIX.) The coal is good, but has much impurity. At Hallville, 142 miles farther west, are several coal-beds. The main bed is about 6 feet thick. The next coal-mine is at Van Dyke, 30 miles west. The coal here is 4 feet thick, and remarkably clean. This and the next coal, at Rock Springs, have the best reputation among Rocky Mountain lignitic coals. The latter mines are 2 miles west of Van Dyke; the bed is 9 feet thick. At Evanston, 126 miles west of Rock Springs, the beds are 26 feet thick, and dip 15°. Iron pyrites are abundant; the coal clinkers to a great extent. These mines supply the Union Pacific and Central Pacific Railroads with fuel. At Coalville, in Utah, these beds are still found. (See Table XXVII. for analyses.) FIG. 34.-Oyster Ridge, Wyoming Territory. TABLE XXIX.-T'he Coal-mines of the Union Pacific Railroad. According to Poor's Manual the coal-lands owned by the Union Pacific Railroad Company extend along the line of the road from Carbon to Echo, a distance of 335 miles, and embrace an area greater than the entire anthracite region of Pennsylvania. Previous to 1875 the mines were worked by contractors, but since that time the company has operated them on its own account. The results of working the principal localities for the last six years are shown in the following table: production Av. cost per ton. 443,332 .... $1.42 .... $1.25% 388,111 1.324 1.05 1.00% 1.16 1.07 $1.22 Total. Cost Tons Mined. per Ton. 208,222 $1.88 264,771 1.41% 275,480 1.133 340,152 1.06% 275,795 1.04 445,129 1.23 1,809,540 81.29% At Cañon City, Col., there is an independent coal field. The coal-openings are 6 miles below the town, on the Arkansas River. The strata lie, for the most part, in a horizontal position, except along the north and west sides. Here the pitch is steep, but flattens and forms a basin, the centre being 3 miles east of the base of Greenhorn Range, a spur of the Rocky Mountains. The basin is 10 miles long and 5 miles wide, containing in ali 34 sq. miles of coal-bearing rocks. There are at least nine seams of lignitic coal, varying in thickness from 6 inches to 8 feet. The two seams cropping farthest south are 6 and 7 feet thick, and but 50 feet apart. The lowest seam is the Cañon City coal, 51 inches thick, 'black, compact, uniform in color, separating in large cubical blocks. Towards the north these seams grow thinner and are farther apart. Lignitic coal is found and mined in the vicinity of Trinidad, Las Animas county. The coal-seam is 9 to 10 feet thick, and its product looks like bituminous coal. It yields an excellent coke, and at present is used extensively in the iron-works of Colorado. At the town of Walsenberg, Huerfano county, 50 miles south of Pueblo, there is a seam 84 feet thick, the coal being of a dull lustre, resembling splint coal, and approaching, to a certain degree, the qualities of the Trinidad coal. Large and valuable beds of bituminous lignite are found on the Animas River, forty miles south of Silverton, in the vicinity of Durango, where, as a conse quence, extensive machine-shops, smelters, and cokeovens have been established. A recent writer (April, 1882) says of the Colorado coals: "The mines in the north, in Boulder and Jef ferson counties, became known soon after the development of the State began, and these still supply a considerable portion of the coal used. But as development continued the fact became manifest that the better portion of the coal-deposit was in the southern half of the State. Cañon City coal, for instance, commands several dollars a ton more in Denver than any other soft coal mined in Colorado-a pre-eminence that it will hold only relatively now that the exceptionally fine, free-burning bituminous [lignitic] of the Gunnison is fairly brought into the market by the opening of the Gunnison extension of the Denver and Rio Grande New Mexican line, is found the famous coking coal of Railway. In the extreme south, too, close upon the El Moro, which, again, is excelled by the coking coal of Crested Butte; and the Cucharas mines, also in the south, yield a good quality of bituminous. From these several mines the output last year amounted to 350,000 tons, and the estimated output of the present year is 400,000 tons." for 1881 shows the following beds worked by it: In the The report of the Colorado Coal and Iron Company Cañon coal-field two beds are worked, 4 and 5 feet; the product was 125,902 tons; its value at mines was $258,417. In the Cucharas coal-field three beds are worked, 4, 7, and 6 feet; the product was 71,272 tons; its value was $135,624. In the El Moro coal-field there was worked a horizontal bed, 10 to 12 feet thick, of good gas, blacksmith, coking, and domestic coal; the product was 150,585 tons; its value was $146,941. In the Crested Butte coal-field were worked four seams, 4, 5, 6, and 10 feet thick; the 5-feet and 4-feet beds produce good coke. ted production in 1882 is 70,000 tons. The company's A railroad has recently reached this field. The estimapresent plant consists of 250 beehive coke-ovens. In 1881 they sold 47,186 tons of El Moro coke for $247,300, making a net profit of $2.31 per ton. Two steam crushing and washing establishments are used to prepare the coal for coking. NEW MEXICO.-New Mexico contains lignitic coals in all their grades of anthracite, bituminous, and true lignites. The anthracite, so far as known, is found only in the Placer Mountains, on the eastern border of the Rio Grande Valley, 30 or 40 miles S. S. W. of Santa Fé; the bituminous, at various points in cañons in the Cretaceous plains, where, by erosion, the strata have been cut through to the coal-measures; and the pure lignites in the Tertiary beds of the northern part of the Territory. The outcroppings of coal on the north-west side of the Placer Mountains are of great |