the measurement of the chemical action of sunlight. His next investigation was a purely chemical one. which greatly taxed his patience and skill. It is on the preparation of pure ceríum compounds, the separation of cerium from lanthanum and didymium, and an investigation of their salts. This was followed by an important paper on the distinction of the different oxides of antimony, and a new method for the separation of antimony and arsenic, which was more fully developed in a subsequent communication in 1878; another one on blowpipe experiments, in which he shows that by the use of the gas-lamp, which he had introduced several years before, the presence of the different alkalies and alkaline earths in feldspars and similar minerals could easily be recognized, and even their relative quantity approximately determined.

Of all the researches of Bunsen, important as they always were, none has given such remarkable results as the introduction of the spectrum as a means of chemical analysis, which he jointly made with his colleague Kirchhoff. With the development of this branch almost a new era begins in scientific research. They were not the first, however, who observed that if a colored flame was viewed through a spectrum peculiar bright lines would appear. Sir John Herschel in 1822 and Talbot in 1834 had made interesting observations in this direction. But these observations, and others like them, had comparatively little influence upon the progress of science until, in 1859 and 1860, Bunsen and Kirchhoff, by a complete investigation, founded the method of spectral analysis, giving at first the spectra of the metals whose salts color a non-luminous flame, like those of the alkalies and alkaline earths. One of the first fruits of spectrum analysis was their discovery of cæsium, a new alkali-metal, in the mineral water of Dürkheim, distinguished by two blue lines, and shortly afterwards by that of a second alkali-metal, rubidium, showing a characteristic red line in the spectrum. The residuum obtained from this water being very scanty, they evaporated forty tons at once, in order to procure a sufficient quantity for a fuller investigation of the relations and analogies of these two new metals so closely allied to potassium. Their researches proved the existence of these metals in many minerals, mineral waters, and refuse products of chemical industries. The relations between the bright lines produced by colored flames and the so-called dark lines of Fraunhofer, the reversion of the bright lines into dark ones, the absorption-bands, the nature and composition of the light of the sun and the stars, and many other points, were gradually brought out by their more extended researches.

In 1875, Bunsen introduced his chromic-acid battery, mentioned above, and in connection with it a new apparatus for spectrum analysis by electric sparks, and gave the results of his investigation of the flame-spectra and also of the absorption-spectra produced by the chlorides of the metals cerium, didymium, lanthanum, yttrium, and erbium.

During the progress of his spectroscopic researches he was working on several other subjects, among which the investigation, made jointly with Bahr, of the earths contained in gadolinite, erbia, and yttria, their separation and determination, and of their salts, is one of the most important. This was followed in 1866 by a paper on flame-reactions, in which he shows that by very simple and ingenious methods, with hardly any other ap paratus than his gas-burner, the presence of nearly one-half of all the known elements can be ascertained very rapidly and with great certainty.

There is in inorganic chemistry perhaps not a more difficult subject than the separation of the platinum metals. He has commenced this investigation with material furnished by the mint in St. Petersburg, and has overcome many of the difficulties by new and accurate methods, of which he published the first part in 1868, having especial reference to the separation of pure rhodium. In the course of this important investigation he was seriously injured by an explosion. In 1870 he described a series of calorimetric investigations, in which he determines with great accuracy the specific gravity of ice, and, based upon this, his new ice-calormeter for the determination of the specific heat of bodies, etc. In his investigations he has been compelled to resort to more simple and accurate methods and apparatus; analytical chemistry is especially and greatly indebted to him, not only for many laboratory contrivances, such as his gas-lamp, his filter-pump, and others, but also for methods of analysis, many of which are now in general use on account of their simplicity and accuracy. (F. A. G.)

BUNTING (etym. dubious), a name applied with See Vol. IV. little discrimination to various species of p. 470 Am. birds of the family Fringillida, chiefly those Edin. ed.). The bunting properly so called is E. miliaed. (p. 525 composing the genus Emberiza of Linnæus. ria of Europe. Numerous North American birds, not even of the same genus, have received the same name, as snow-bunting, Plectrophanes nivalis; towhee-bunting, Pipilo erythrophthalmus; lark-bunting, Calamospiza bicolor; black-throated bunting, Spiza Americanu. There was formerly supposed to be a character of the palate by which the "buntings" collectively could be distinguished from other Fringillida, but such has proven not to be the case. (E. C.)

BURDEN, HENRY (1791-1871), an American inventor, was born at Dumblane, Scotland, April 20, 1791. He was the son of a farmer, studied engineering at Edinburgh, and came to America in 1819. Engaging in the iron manufacture, he soon made an improved plough, and in 1820 the first cultivator used in America. In 1822 he became agent of the Troy iron and nail factory. Numerous patents were issued to him one in 1825 for making wrought spikes, one in 1835 for making horseshoes, one in 1840 for making the hook-headed spikes used on American railroads, and another for a machine to make blooms out of puddlers' balls, and one in 1849 for a machine to make iron bars. His greatest invention, patented in 1857, was a machine for making horseshoes, by which sixty shoes are made from iron bars each minute. This machine has also been patented in several European countries. In 1833 he built an enormous steamboat, which, from its peculiar shape, was called the "cigar-boat," and he advocated the construction of large steamships for ocean navigation. He finally became sole proprietor of the ironworks with which he had long been connected, and which had been greatly enlarged under his management. He died at Troy, N. Y., Jan. 19, 1871.

BURDETT-COUTTS, ANGELA GEORGINA, BARONEss, an English philanthropist, youngest daughter of Sir Francis Burdett, was born April 25, 1814. Her grandfather, Thomas Coutts, a wealthy banker, married late in life a popular actress, and left to her an immense fortune. The latter was afterwards married to the duke of St. Albans, but having no children, made Miss Burdett her heiress on condition that she should add Coutts to her name. It was also stipulated that in case she married a foreigner she should lose one

plimentary letters from European and American scientific societies and academies were presented to the vet eran director. Burmeister's earliest publications were text-books on the natural sciences, and some of these have passed through several editions, as the Grundriss der Naturgeschichte and Geschichte der Schöpfung. He afterwards published accounts of his travels in South America and works on zoology and physical geography. Among these are— Systematische Uebersicht der Thiere Brasiliens (Berlin, 1856); Anales del Museo Público de Buenos Aires (1864-74); Description physique de la République Argentine (Paris, 1876). His contributions to scientific journals have been numerous and valuable, and his name has been given to a large number of species of animals discovered or described by him. He has been made a member of many American and European scientific societies.

BURNAND, FRANCIS COWLEY, an English humorist, editor of Punch, was born in 1837. He was educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge, and was admitted to the bar in 1862. His ability as a humorous writer has been displayed in a large number of pieces for the stage, among which the burlesque of Ixion was the first to achieve success. His travesty of Douglas Jerrold's Black-eyed Susan had a remarkable run of 400 nights in London. Burnand's genuine humor and happy knack of twisting words and notions made him a very acceptable contributor to Punch, which for some time had been depending on its draughtsmen to sustain its reputation. He soon became its chief writer, and after the death of "Tom" Taylor in 1880, Burnand by the best of right succeeded to the charge of that important censor of British follies and foibles social and political. Even the fact that he had been for some years a sincere Roman Catholic did not prevent the publishers from securing his valuable aid, though twenty years before Richard Doyle had been constrained to leave Punch on account of its hostility to his faith. From the pages of that journal in succeeding years several volumes have been gathered which attest Burnand as a worthy successor of Hood. Some of his books are novels sparkling with puns and full of rollicking humor; others are burlesques of various popular novels, books of travel, etc. The most noted is Happy Thoughts (1870), which was followed by More Happy Thoughts (1871) and Happy Thought Hall (1872). Another novel is My Time, and What I've Done with It (1874). The burlesques include A Treble Temptation (1873); The Modern Sandford and Merton (1875); The Ride to Khiva (1876); The Incomplete Angler (1876); Strapmore, by Weeder (1878); What's the Odds? (1879); Gone Wrong (1881).

BURNETT, FRANCES ELIZA HODGSON, an American novelist, was born in Manchester, England, Nov. 24, 1849. When she was fifteen years old her family removed to Knoxville, Tenn. While yet in her teens she wrote for magazines a number of love-stories, some of which were published in book-form after her later stories had established her reputation. In June, 1872, she made her first contribution to Scribner's Magazine, and she has since written regularly for that magazine and its successor, The Century. Her most powerful and characteristic work, That Lass o' Lowrie's, appeared in 1876. It is a story of a Lancashire mining-town, and shows a thorough acquaintance with its modes of life and a deep sympathy with those engaged in mining. Clearly and strongly is its usual hardening and debasing effect upon character displayed, while in the development of the heroine from a rude pit-girl to a noble type of woman

hood we are shown the possibility and means of triumph over surrounding evil. Around this central figure are grouped with artistic skill other characters, well drawn and lifelike, yet subordinate. Throughout the work the author has displayed great dramatic power and a perfect mastery of the Lancashire dialect. The instantaneous and pronounced success of this work caused her to linger in the same field, but her next work, Haworth's (1878), though evincing considerable power, is strained and melodramatic. Turning her attention now to the life with which she had become familiar in America, Mrs. Burnett issued Louisiana (1880), a story of Western North Carolina. Here she shows again keen insight into character and remarkable power of presenting vigorous thought in a rude dialect. Among her works are A Fair Barbarian (1881); Through One Administration (1882), and Little Lord Fauntleroy (1886), whose success has been phenomenal, both as a novel and in its dramatized form. In September, 1873, she was married to Dr. S. M. Burnett, and since 1877 has resided chiefly at Washington, D. C.

BURR, AARON (1756-1836), third Vice-President of the United States, son of the Rev. Aaron Burr (17161757), and grandson of the theologian Jonathan Edwards, was born at Newark, N. J., Feb. 6, 1756. Both of his parents dying before he was three years old, he and his sister were brought up in the family of their uncle, Hon. Timothy Edwards of Elizabethtown, N. J. Burr was educated at Princeton College, and after graduating in 1772 spent another year there, then resided for some months in Connecticut with Rev. Dr. Joseph Bellamy, his grandfather's theological successor, and afterwards with his brother-in-law, Tappan Reeve, with whom he began to study law. In April, 1775, receiving news of the battle of Lexington, he hastened to the seat of war near Boston and enlisted as a private. His desire for adventures led him to accompany Arnold on the disastrous expedition to Canada by way of the Kennebec River. Though of delicate constitution, his resolute spirit would not permit him to succumb to the hardships of the winter march, and when they reached Canada, Burr was sent ahead to inform Gen. Montgomery, who had marched from New York, of their approach. Having successfully accomplished his dangerous mission, he was placed on Montgomery's staff with the rank of captain. Eager to distinguish himself, he led a forlorn hope in the unsuccessful assault on Quebec, Dec. 30, 1775, and when Montgomery fell endeavored to bring off his body. Burr's gallant conduct procured his promotion to the rank of major, and on his return in May, 1776, Washington invited him to remain at headquarters, then in New York. In a few weeks Burr was dissatisfied with his position, and left to join the staff of Gen. Putnam, a rough but valiant soldier. By his conduct at this time Burr lost for ever the esteem of Washington, and afterwards affected to despise the military ability of the commander-in-chief. For the rest of the year he was actively employed in operations around New York, and in the next July was made lieutenant-colonel, having the actual command of his regiment. He served til November on the banks of the Hudson, then joined the main army, about to go into winter quarters at Valley Forge. At the battle of Monmouth, June 28, 1778, he commanded a brigade, and by his severe labors and exposure incurred an illness from which he slowly recovered. In the winter he displayed skill and courage in guarding the American lines in Westchester county above New York City, and this duty being found too severe for his

strength, he was placed for a short time in command at West Point, but in March, 1779, resigned on account of ill-health. Having resumed the study of law, he was admitted to the bar at Albany in April, 1782. In July of the same year he married Mrs. Theodosia Prevost, the widow of Gen. Augustine Prevost, a British officer.

When the Americans regained possession of New York in Nov., 1783, Burr settled in that city, and, by his skill and talents obtaining extensive practice, was soon living in splendid style at Richmond Hill, a fine mansion in the suburbs. At this time began his professional rivalry with Hamilton, soon to turn into a bitter political strife. Three great and powerful families then-divided the political control of the State of New York-the Clintons, the Livingstons, and the Schuylers. Hamilton had by his marriage allied himself with the last, but Burr showed himself desirous of pulling down all three, that he might rise to supreme power on their ruins. In 1784 he was elected a member of the State assembly, and in 1789 was appointed attorney-general of New York. In the great discussion which agitated the State concerning the ratification of the Federal Constitution, he had manifested a contemptuous indifference, but after its adoption he appeared as a candidate of the Anti-Federal party. Around him gathered needy and talented young men who followed his fortunes to make their own, and were sometimes called "Burr's Little Band." By such means his political influence steadily increased, and in 1791 he was chosen United States Senator by the legislature, succeeding Gen. Philip Schuyler, whose aristocratic haughtiness had given offence. When the Senate met, Burr though the youngest member, was made chairman of the committee appointed, according to the custom of the time, to reply to the address of the President. His brilliant talents and charming manners rendered him popular with members of both parties in the Senate, though he always acted with the Republicans, as the Anti-Federalists were now called. Yet the Virginia leaders did not favor him, and when he was strongly recommended for the mission to France, Washington absolutely refused to appoint him.

In 1797 the Federal party seemed to have gained complete control of New York, and Burr, retiring from the national Senate, was obliged to be content with a nomination to the State assembly. Then his peculiar genius for party manipulation was finely displayed, and his adroit management of the campaign regained for his party the position it had lost. Taking advantage of the carelessness of the Federalists in forming their ticket, he secured the nomination of the ablest and most trusted citizens of the State, and shrewdly overcame their respective objections to be candidates. The success at this election assured to his party the great prize of the Presidency in the approaching national contest, and as a reward for his eminent services Burr was placed on the ticket with Jefferson. Both obtained 73 electoral votes, and according to the provision of the Constitution in such emergency it devolved upon the House of Representatives, voting by States, to decide which should be President. Several of Burr's relatives were prominent Federalists, and most of that party in Congress voted for him, though Hamilton used his influence in opposition. Burr kept silence, and seemed willing to take the prize almost within his grasp, even though by so doing he should alienate his own party. After a contest of several days the Federalists of Vermont and Maryland were induced to withhold their votes, and the thirty-sixth

ballot showed eight States voting for Jefferson and six for Burr, while two were divided. By his course while the question was in dispute he lost the favor of the Republicans, and by his subsequent action as Vice-President he was considered by the Federalist Senators as ungrateful. Jefferson ignored him in making appointments to office, and in spite of Burr's urgency retained as naval officer in New York a Federalist who was accused of having been a Revolutionary Tory, rather than appoint M. L. Davis, Burr's right-hand man. But in his own State the baffled politician still retained some influence, and being thus forced into opposition announced himself as an independent candidate for the governorship. Most of the Federalists voted for him, but Hamilton was able to prevent his election. Then came the challenge to mortal combat. The ostensible cause was an expression used by Hamilton privately with reference to Burr's unfitness for the office, and though some attempt was made at explanation, the challenger pressed the demand for satisfaction till Hamilton accepted. The duel was fought early on the morning of July 11, 1804, on the west bank of the Hudson, at Weehawken, N. J. Burr, who had practised at a mark for some days previous, took deliberate aim, and Hamilton fell mortally wounded, his pistol being discharged in the air. For ten days after Hamilton's death Burr lingered in New York, and then, finding public opinion becoming more incensed as the duel was publicly discussed, he withdrew to Philadelphia, and thence to Georgia, hoping the breeze would blow over. Meantime, both in New York and in New Jersey efforts were made to have him indicted for murder on the testimony of clergymen who attended Hamilton in his dying hours. When the Senate reassembled in December, Burr was in his place as VicePresident, and afterwards presided at the impeachment of Judge Samuel Chase, who, being accused of making partisan harangues from the bench, narrowly escaped conviction. His strict impartiality at this trial won the approval of the Federalists, and at the close of his term he made an impressive valedictory address and received the usual vote of thanks. Yet he was a ruined man; his house in New York had been sold, but the amount obtained did not suffice to pay his debts, nor could all his property discharge them, and he was therefore liable to imprisonment if he returned.

Homeless and bankrupt, without a hope of retrieving his fortunes in the East, Burr turned to the West, whither adventurers already had begun to resort. The country beyond the Alleghanies was separated from the East by formidable natural barriers, and the inhabitants of the two sections, though of the same origin, were united by but feeble bonds of sentiment. The natural outlet of the West is the Mississippi, but the mouth of this mighty stream, as well as its right bank, had been in the possession of men of other races, who too often showed distrust and hatred of the hardy adventurers settling on the upper part of the stream. During Jefferson's administration the control of the vast province of Louisiana passed from the Spanish to the French, and then by a happy chance to the United States. But some circumstances connected with the first transfer had proved very irritating to the English-speaking settlers, and their feeling of hostility to the Spaniards was not allayed by the second. The emperor Napoleon had purposely left the boundary of the ceded province vaguely defined in the treaty, and a Spanish armed force for a time occupied territory claimed by the United States.

Burr in his first voyage down the Ohio formed the