riage-a condition of things which might have been, pictured in contrast with the magnificence of his harem and all the luxuriousness which surrounded him, and making the latter seem pitiful by comparison. And there is no ground for any of the interpretations which represent the Shulamite as either accepting or repelling unlawful and indelicate attentions on the part of any one. The alleged expressions of sensuality are merely instances of mistaken exegesis. For example, the Shulamite compares her husband in the daytime, when he is abroad attending to his affairs, alert and vigorous, to an antelope bounding over the mountains. She compares him when he is at home at night to the antelope quietly feeding by night among the lilies at the edge of the water. This figure, and allusions to it, are several times repeated. The interpretation which understands these passages as parallel to certain passages in Swift or Sterne or Lord Byron is unworthy, and is as far as possible from the meaning of the original. There is no occasion, therefore, to defend the book against these interpretations by guessing, in contradiction to all the evidence, that the passages in question are interpolated corruptions of the text.

The fact that some Jews, as late as the close of the first century A. D., were in doubt as to the canonical character of the book, does not show that up to that time it had been omitted from the Old-Testament Canon, and therefore had been more subject than the other books to a change of text, but rather that, though it had always been regarded as scriptural, it had yet been less used, and was consequently less known, than some of the other books. (See BIBLE.)

tion with Jerusalem. This latter point is very difficult to account for on the theory that the poem belongs to the times of Baasha or Omri, for the relations between Tirzah and Jerusalem were then not such as would lead any one to mention them both lovingly in the same breath.

But independently of this branch of the evidence, most scholars think that they have sufficient proof that Solomon was the author of the Canticles. In the introduction to Green's translation of Zöckler's Commentary on Canticles in Schaff's edition of Lange is a full and successful discussion of this question by the author and the translator, including a summary of arguments by Delitzsch and Hengstenberg. The following extract gives a general idea of the nature of the proof of the Solomonic authorship of the book: "That Canticles was composed in the age of Solomor. as the flourishing period of the Old-Testament Chokmah literature may be argued not only from manifold indications of the affinity between its ethical tendency and view of the world and those of Solomon's collection of proverbs, but chiefly from the certainty with which its author deals with all that is connected with the history of the Solomonic period; the exuberant prosperity and the abundance of native and foreign commodities, whose existence he assumes in Israel at that time, and the remarkably rich round of figures and comparisons from nature which is everywhere at his command in his descriptions. And that this author is no other than Solomon himself is shown by the extensive knowledge which he exhibits throughout the entire poem of remarkable and rare objects from all of the three kingdoms of nature, and by which he may be most unmistakably recognized as the wise king who was able to speak of trees, from the cedar tree that is in Lebanon even unto the hyssop that springeth out of the wall; also of beasts and of fowl and of creeping things and of fishes,' 1 Kings v. 13 (iv. 33). Solomon's author ship is likewise confirmed by the equal acquaintance which the poet shows with all parts of the land of Israel; the easy and familiar way, indicating not only accurate knowledge, but royal possession and ownership, in which he speaks of horses in Pharaoh's chariot (i. 9), of wood from Lebanon (iii. 9), of the tower in It has been inferred from the mention of Tirzah in Lebanon looking toward Damascus (vii. 5), of the pools Cant. vi. 4 that the book was written while Tirzah was of Heshbon and the forests of Carmel (vii. 5, 6), the the capital of the kingdom of Israel under Baasha. tents of Kedar and the mountains of Gilead (i. 5; ív. 1), But it appears from 1 Kings xiv. 17 that Jeroboam also of the beauty of Tirzah and the loveliness of Jerusalem lived at Tirzah. In the account given in the Vatican (vi. 4; cf. iv. 4), etc. The peculiarities of the language of copy of the Septuagint in the long added passage found the poem, rightly estimated, likewise testify rather in faafter 1 Kings xii. 24 this name appears twice, indis- vor of than against Solomon's authorship. For the Araputably, as Sarira. The same account affirms that mæisms and apparent traces of later usage which it preJeroboam, in the days when he was the servant of sents are, like similar phenomena in the Song of DeboSolomon, built for Solomon "the Sarira in the moun- rah, in the book of Job, in the prophet Amos, etc., to tain-country of Ephraim," as well as the fortifications be attributed entirely to its highly poetical character. at Jerusalem. Now, it is commonly said that this par- And the occurrence in individual cases of foreign nonticular Greek copy also gives Sarira as the equivalent Semitic words (e. g., D17, iv. 13; 8, iii. 9), if of Ts'redah, the birthplace of Jeroboam. This might this were actually proven, would be least surprising in easily be otherwise explained. But even if it be true, a writer of such many-sided learning and of so univerthe Sarira in Mount Ephraim, the city from which Jeroboam's wife went to Shiloh and returned, must have been Tirzah, and not Ts'redah. According to this account, therefore which certainly has some historical validity-Solomon built Tirzah, employing the same man to direct the work whom he employed in similar services in Jerusalem. The view, therefore, that Solomon is the author of this book not only accounts for the prominence with which Tirzah is here named, but also for the mentioning of Tirzah in connec

Moreover, if we regard the book as a simple idyl of married love, we do not thereby deny its right to claim a place in the Canon on the ground of its religious character. Perhaps its merely ethical teachings as to love and marriage would constitute for it a sufficient claim; but its title is not restricted to this ground alone. The pure but eager and whole-hearted love in marriage in its highest type is the best possible illustration of certain aspects of the love which ought to exist between God and man; and this use of the book of Canticles should be promoted, and not hin dered, by the realistic interpretation now current.

sal a turn of mind as Solomon. And, finally, the contents of the piece are of such a nature as not only to admit, but actually to favor, the supposition that Solomon is the author, provided that in ascertaining these contents we discard the common assumption of the profane erotic exegesis that this king is introduced as the seducer of the innocence of a country maid, who adheres with steadfast fidelity to her betrothed." (W. J. B.)

CANTON, a city of Fulton co., Ill., is on the divide between the Spoon River and the Illinois River. 28

CANTON, the county-seat of Madison co., Miss., is on the Chicago, St. Louis, and New Orleans Railroad, 190 miles N. of New Orleans and 23 miles N. of Jackson. It has a bank, two hotels, a weekly news paper, five churches, and good schools. It ships about 20,000 bales of cotton annually. Population, 2122. CANTON, the largest town of Lewis co., Mo., is on the Mississippi River and on the Keokuk and St. Louis Railroad, 165 miles N. of St. Louis. It has a bank, two weekly newspapers, ten churches, graded schools, and the Christian University, under the control of the "Christian" denomination. It carries on an extensive trade, has two elevators, numerous warehouses, large saw-mill, three planing-mills, three flour-mills, and several manufactories. Population, 15,909.

miles W. S. W. of Peoria, and at the intersection of in Italy, and it was translated at once into English, the Buda branch of the Chicago, Burlington, and French, and German. As he disliked Voltaire and Quincy Railroad and the Peoria division of the Wa- the French literati, he has depreciated France in this bash, St. Louis, and Pacific Railroad. It has three work, especially in the eighteenth century. In 1851 hotels, three banks (one national), three weekly news- he wrote a valuable History of Italian Literature. papers, seven churches, and five schools. It has a Among his other works are a History of the Last foundry, a factory, two flour-mills, and two large manu- Hundred Years (1864), a History of the Italians (1st factories of agricultural implements. It was settled in ed. 1854; 2d ed. 1857-60), The Italian Parnassus : 1831, and incorporated in 1849 with a temperance char- Contemporary Italian Poets, Greater and Less; and a ter. Its property is valued at $1,000,000; its public poem, Algiso; or, The Lombard League (1828). He debt is $2000, and its expenses for 1881 were $10,000. was admitted to a seat in the Vatican Council in 1869, It is neat in appearance and lighted with gas. Popu and appointed its historiographer. Some of his fictions lation, 5589 have been in part autobiographical. Although favorably known as a poet and a novelist, his chief claim to literary reputation is as a philosophic historian. Among his later works are Gli Eretici d'Italia (1867); A His tory of Italian, Latin, and Greek Literature (1863-64); Cesare Beccaria e il Diritto Penale (1864); Chiesa é Stato (1867); Dell' indipendenza italiana (1870); Reminiscenze su Alessandro Manzoni (1882). (H. C.) CANVAS-BACK, a kind of duck of the family Ánatido, sub-family Fuligulina-the Fuligula vallisneria, sometimes placed in the genus Aythya, sometimes also made type of a distinct genus, Aristonetta. The specific name is derived from the "wild celery," Vallisneria spiralis, of which the bird is especially fond, and from feeding upon which its flesh acquires the peculiar flavor so well relished by gourmands, the name of the hydrocharidaceous plant itself being derived from that of Antonio Vallisneri, an Italian naturalist (16611730). This kind of tape-grass or eel-grass grows in most parts of the United States and many other countries; it is abundant in Chesapeake Bay, which is consequently the winter resort of great numbers of canvasbacks. The bird is about 20 inches or so in extent of wings; the wing, 10; tarsus, 1; the bill, 24 or more, measured along the culmen, with median nostrils. The size and shape of the bill are the principal specific characters in comparison with closely-related F. americana, or red-head duck, which is not seldom sold and eaten as the canvas-back. In F. vallisneria the bill is not shorter than the head, narrow and nearly parallel-sided throughout, and very high at the base, where it rises with a long, gentle slope in line with the forehead. In F. americana the bill is shorter, wider, lower, and meets the forehead out of line with the great convexity of the latter; the nostrils are sub-basal; the bill is also bluish, CANTU, CESARE, an Italian historian, born at with a black belt near the end, whereas in the canvasBrivio, in the Milanese, Dec. 8, 1807. At the early age back the bill is dusky throughout. The male canvasof eighteen he was a professor of belles-lettres in the back has the head and upper part of the neck dark college of Sondrio in the Valtelline. Not long after chestnut, much obscured on the head with dusky; the he changed his residence, first to Como and then to back ashy-white, finely rayed transversely with narrow, Milan. He ardently embraced the liberal cause, and broken, and zigzag lines of blackish, from the effects soon began to write in its behalf. In 1842-44 he pub- of which vermiculation comes the name; the lower lished a work entitled Reflections upon the History of neck, breast, flanks, and crissum blackish; the wingLombardy in the Seventeenth Century, which drew upon speculum slaty-bluish; the feet dark slate; the eyes him the disfavor of the existing government. He was red. In F. americana the back is mixed silvery-gray condemned on the charge of conspiracy to one year's im- and blackish in about equal amounts, the dark lines prisonment. He utilized the time, however, in writing being broader and not so much broken into dots; the a novel called Margherita Pusterla and a number of effect is thus different. The head is bright chestnutpoems, religious and political, in which he shows a red, with a coppery lustre. The female canvas-back is devotion to liberty and great loyalty to the papacy, smaller than the male, and has the head plain dark which he considered the principal factor in the re- snuff-brown, but may be recognized by the shape of the demption of Italy. Numerous articles in the Bibli- bill and other characters. The canvas-back inhabits oteca Italiana and other urnals are written in the style North America at large, but is particularly abundant of the romantic school of Manzoni and Silvio Pellico. along the Atlantic coast of the United States; it breeds His principal work is a voluminous Universal History chiefly far north, but certainly also down to the north(1st ed. 1837; 9th ed. 1864). Its popularity was so ern border of the United States at ordinary elevations, great that many editions appeared in rapid succession and still farther south in alpine localities. The flesh is

CANTON, the county-seat of St. Lawrence co., N. Y., is on both sides of Grass River, 18 miles S. E. of Ogdensburg, and on the Potsdam branch of the Rome, Watertown, and Ogdensburg Railroad. It contains a court-house and jail, both built of Potsdam red sandstone, clerk's office of gray marble, three hotels, two weekly newspapers, an opera-house, six churches, a union school and an academy. It has also two foundries, two flour-mills, saw-mill, tannery, boat-factory, and smaller works. It is the seat of St. Lawrence University, which, besides departments of letters and science, has a Universalist theological school. Its library, founded by Silas Herring of New York, contains 10,000 volumes. The university has three fine buildings, one of which is a memorial hall of Rev. Ebenezer Fisher, D. D., the founder of the theological school. Canton was settled in 1800 by Stillman Foote, and incorporated as a village in 1845. Population,

2500

has become, not synonymous with wealth, but a differing form rather than a differing substance of social force. Wealth comprises all matter and all privilege useful to man. But these matters and these privileges may exist in a form useful to the individual owner only. A drove of bullocks grazing in the valleys of the Rocky Mountains before the opening of the Union Pacific Railway was an article of wealth. In crossing the arid deserts eastward to the market, though their skins and bones might remain, their exchange value would fall so low that it would not pay the cost of driving them over. This drove of cattle, which represents the early form of capital, illustrates the constant difference between wealth and capital. While the drove exists among the grasses of nature it has a certain value to the owner. Put it on a railway, or carry it along pastures where it can keep its flesh, and it becomes capital, an article of wealth which can be told off by the head or pass from hand to hand, the representative of value and the medium of exchange. The land on which the grass grew which nourished the cattle goes through the same social evolution. Useful to the owner while in its remote condition, it had yet no value as a means of civilization; when connected with a market or series of markets an acre of it might be bought and sold, might be made a basis of exchange in New York or London, and thus might become capitalized or told off into capital.

and thorough manner, but he adds no new principle. He disputes the statement of Karl Marx, that "capital is money which begets money. This opposes the true nature of merchandise, value, money, and circulation. This opposition benefits but one of the three men who transact business" (Das Kapital, p. 139). The French say, "All our capitals, all our riches, spring from our faculty of accumulating, sparing, and preserving." We believe all economists agree in this feature of capital: abstinence or parsimony is an essential part of this particular form of wealth. It is a commodity or commodities saved to be applied to reproduction, as distinguished from those things which are consumed. The idea of the individual user or consumer seems to have been always present in their minds, and to have limited all the definitions of capital. But saving or consumption, while it affects wealth as such, affects capital not at all as distinguished from wealth. Consumption may be needed to make wealth into capital. What drew our bullock out of the Rocky Mountains and converted him from idle wealth into active capital? Was it not the fact that somebody was waiting to eat him where bullocks were scarce and money was plenty? What is the best form of capital to-day? Every one will answer, A British consolidated 3-per cent., a United States 4-per cent., or any equally convertible Government security. Even Marx, whatIt is this essential social character of capital which ever may be his notions of government, social order, escaped the notice of the early writers on political econ- and economical rights, would carry this form of capital omy, and has been recognized but dimly since. Adam to London, New York, Canton, or Capetown, rather Smith classified wealth into stock in two divisions, the than a bag of gold, a cargo of wheat, or a sack of diasecond of which should be capital. His first division monds. The bonds have all the value of the commodiof stock he then divides again, not quite clearly. His ties, in that they will exchange for them at a trifling division of capital he analyzes into fixed and circulating. Notwithstanding all this classification, Mill pushes farther, saying, "The distinction, then, between capital and not-capital does not lie in the kind of commodities, but in the mind of the capitalist-in his will to employ them for one purpose rather than another; and all property, however ill adapted in itself for the use of laborers, is a part of capital as soon as it, or the value to be received from it, is set apart for productive reinvestment" (Political Economy, book i. chap. iv. ? 1).

The continuation of these abstractions produced the curious fantasy of the Wages Fund, the dogma of productive and unproductive consumption, and other economical theories which cannot be reduced to the test of ordinary experience.

discount, or even at a premium, wherever civilization exists; and they have the additional value of the interest accruing besides. While the owner has been travelling his capital has been working, and its representative, the bond in his pocket, has been increasing. It represents more wheat, gold, or diamonds-balancing exchanges being equal-in Canton than it represented in London before the journey commenced.

This bond is not wealth in substance, but in limited amounts it is the best instrument of wealth humanity has ever invented. In essence it is the inverse, the absolute opposite, of wealth. Generally speaking, it is founded, so far as it has any relation to wealth or commodities, on saved products which have been consumed, fired away in cannon, eaten by armies, wasted in wars. The French writers, with all their power of analysis, It may represent a solid work of industry like the Suez have not improved upon the English economical def Canal or the Union Pacific Railway, but as a rule Govinitions of this word. Say departed from Smith's ernment bonds represent lost wealth and wasted prodcourse, making capital the equivalent of the latter's ucts. Whatever it represents historically, in substance stock. This was not a gain, for Smith and Matthews it is one; it is a social obligation. It is an obligation make stock the whole and capital a part, which is cer- to pay, a debt, a piece of debit-credit, which must be tainly a well-grounded distinction. McCulloch makes met by future savings and abstinence. It differs from stock the genus and capital the species. These dis- that wealth which is not capital in that it has not been tinctions should not be obliterated, unless we replace saved, but will be saved; then its personation of wealth them with clearer terms, something which shall make will be completed; it will be liquidated, paid, and dea more definite analysis; and the French have not done stroyed. But it may be a more useful tool during its this. They introduced fund or funds, but that term existence, it may create more actual wealth and comonly became more confused than " capital.' And, modities, than the plough creates in the same time, if finally, Larousse says the English should follow Smith, it be put to the highest uses of civilization. while "French economists must always use capital in We can hardly conceive of capital in the modern two very different meanings, according as it is employed sense without some form of credit entering into it. in common language or as a term of exact science." Credit is order well distributed. Negotiable paper, colBut there is nothing national or race-descended in the lectable accounts, bank deposits, bank or other circuterm capital. If there is anything natural and com- lating notes,-all these become admirable forms of capimon to humanity, it is in the desire, use, and posses- tal in any civilized community. And we must observe sion of worldly goods. Roscher treats it in a learned that consumption enters into them all in different de

grees, but with equal certainty. Why does a man capital and labor. The hiring of labor or the selling carry a bit of paper money instead of the indestructible of its products is a small part of the social business diamond if it is not that his immediate desire to ex- which is transacted in every movement of life, great or pend may be gratified? The diamond is a more solid small. Whenever capital and labor are loosened, startform of wealth, and is getting to be a highly convert- ed, or employed a new product is created, and the old ible form. Why does the merchant or financier carry ones are destroyed in the process. This highly sublinegotiable notes, mere personal securities, in his pocketbook, when he can have the security of land and solid buildings for his property? It is that he may have the privilege of converting this capital into other capital or commodities at the need of the market. It is true that the operation of the market is an exchange, and is simply commercial, but this exchange is prompted and impelled by a personal want and accumulation of wants, which is never absent from the transaction in its essential nature.