simple sound, as may be easily heard in the word singer. It is true, we have no single character to represent that sound, nor is it owned for a letter by any nation, except, perhaps, the Hebrews. The distinction in the formation of these three sounds depends on the means by which the mouth is closed. In m the lips effect this; in ng the back of the tongue is applied to the roof of the palate, as in the words sing, singer, longer, bang, bung, &c. In n the tongue is pressed against the fore part of the palate. 3d, Continuous oral sounds developed by the compression which the air undergoes by the valve-like application of different parts of the mouth to each other, f, ch, sch, s, r, v, l. To pronounce ƒ, the air is compressed by approximating the lower lip to the upper teeth, and v differs from it only in being more aspirated. The former of these letters is not possessed by the Brazilians, and the latter is not represented in the alphabets of the Mexicans, Arabians, Persians, and Saxons (Wilkins). Ch, the Greek x, is found only in the German, Welsh, and Scotch languages, unless the Irish gh, as heard in the word lough, be identical with it. In pronouncing it, the air is compressed between the back of the tongue and the middle of the palate. Sh, or sch of the Germans, has no corresponding character; it is heard as a distinct simple sound, represented by s alone, in the word fusion, and represented by sh in many words, as she, shibboleth. During its pronunciation, the teeth are approximated, and the tongue lies behind, without touching them. S is formed in the same way, but the tongue touches the teeth or fore part of the palate. In pronouncing_r, the tongue vibrates against the palate. For the sound of 7, the tongue is applied to the palate, and the air made to pass on either or both sides of it.

Continuous.

The following table will serve at one glance to exhibit these:

Now that the affinities in the formation of the different letters are understood, it will be interesting for the reader to trace some of the conversions which take place when words are transferred from one language to another. Thus we have shown that d and t are formed in the same way, only that the latter is more strongly aspirated than the former, and we find that the Latin dens is rendered tand in Dutch, Danish, and Swedish, and the English dance is tance in German. L and r, letters apparently very dissimilar, are found often changed for one another; thus we find that brandish is blandir in Spanish, and escort, escolta. Bland is, in Portuguese, brando, and blanch, branquear. The Greek gaysλov is the Latin flagellum. These changes are explained on referring to the table, where we find and r in the same class. Dr Webster expresses surprise that the Italians and French should change a dental into a palatal letter in many words; as Italian raggio, a ray from Lat. radius; and ragione, reason, from ratio; Fr. manger from Lat. mando, or manduco. But this surprise is owing only to the absurd distinction of dental and palatal letters, for on referring to the table it will be seen that d and g, the convertible letters, are simple explosive consonants, formed very nearly in the same way.

6

We trust it has been made apparent what facilities a knowledge of the physiological formation of sounds affords for their acquirement, and it were easy, did our space permit, to show how the learner, guided by their affinities, should be made to proceed by successive steps from the more simple to the more complicated sounds; but we have already so far exceeded our limits, as to render it necessary to hurry on to a conclusion. It is evident that, by attention to the due position of the organs in the formation of the sounds, most inaccuracies would be prevented or cured. For example, were the oral opening and canal placed in the first position of Kempelen's table (page 59), we would no longer have the Irish talking of pawtron, or mawtron,' or the Scotch indulging us with their vicious 'haybit. It is evident that if articulate sounds can be produced artificially by means of machines constructed for the purpose, as has been done by Kratzenstein, Kempelen, and Willis; which, by means of alterations in

6

the parts composing them, could be made to imitate the human voice, a greater perfection would be obtained, could we control and modify the action of that machine which has been formed for the purpose, not by the limited power of human ingenuity, but by the Almighty Creator himself.

And not only erroneous, but even defective speech might thus be remedied. The burr and the lisp would be corrected were the proper formation of the erroneous letter understood and attended to, and the most successful treatment of stammering is conducted on the same principle.* Dr Arnott regarded the immediate cause of stammering to be a spasmodic affection of the glottis; an opinion in which Schulthess coincides. He proposed to remedy this by making the stammerer connect all the words of a sentence by a vocal intonation, but this plan never can be entirely successful, as the stoppage usually occurs, not between the words, but in the middle of them. The celebrated cure of Madame Leigh, consisted in forcing the point of the tongue towards the palate; but, as Müller well remarks, this is mere groping in the dark, neither teacher nor pupil knowing the principle of the procedure.' The late Dr Abercrombie directed particular attention to this subject, and it is gratifying to find that the procedure he recommends is exactly in accordance with the principles which we have been attempting to enforce. The following is his opinion on the subject:—

According to these views, the principles on which the cure of the affection may be accomplished, appeared to be the following: In actually accomplishing a cure, every thing depends upon the perseverance of the patient himself after the principles have been explained to him.

"I. To direct the attention of the individual to the three distinct parts, of which the function of speech consists, viz.

"1. A full and continuous current of air proceeding outwards from the lungs.

"2. The formation of this into inarticulate sound, or voice, by the action of the larynx.

"3. The formation of this into articulate sound, or speech, chiefly by certain movements of the lips and the tongue.

“He soon perceives that he has no difficulty in performing any of these actions, when they are thus made separate objects of attention; and in this manner he is led to understand that his affection does not depend upon any defect in any of the organs of speech, or a difficulty of performing any of the processes of which the function consists; but in a certain

The great difficulty of leading the dumb to speak, arises from their deafness preventing them from imitating the voices of others. Might not this be overcome to a certain extent, by teaching them the proper position of the organs necessary for the formation of articulate sounds? The number of speaking machines which have been constructed certainly seems to encourage such a hope.

+ Elements of Physics, vol. ii.

VOL. XIX. NO. I.

F

want of harmony among these processes, which has grown into a habit He is easily made to perceive, for example, that he has no difficulty in performing that motion of the lips by which is formed the sound of the letter B, then why should he have any difficulty in saying bee, boy, bell, &c. When the formation of each letter is thus made a separate object of attention, or a distinct voluntary act, it is remarkable to observe how the difficulty seems to vanish; and by continued attention in this manner, the habit is gradually broken, in as far as concerns this part of the process.

"II. The second, and principal part of the treatment is, to exercise the individual in the habit of never attempting to speak without having a FULL AND STRONG current OF VOICE. He may be made sensible of the effect of this, by making him read in a strong loud tone of voice, as if he were calling to a person at a distance—or in a tone resembling singing or chanting-or in the peculiar tone of a precentor, in reading out the line, which has been already referred to. When he has thus been made to understand the principles on which the removal of the affection is to be conducted, the farther treatment consists in a course of exercises calculated to give him a full command of his voice, and so to correct the habit which he has acquired, of speaking, or attempting to speak, without sufficient voice."*

Having thus entered shortly into the inquiry as to the origin of written language-shown the connection between written and spoken language-and how each may be made mutually to assist in the acquirement of the other; and having shortly considered the physiological formation of speech in reference to the conversion of written into spoken language, or the art of reading, we have left little room to say anything of the valuable work with which this article is headed. This is the less to be regretted, as the name of Mr Reid is so well known, not only as an able and successful teacher, but as having contributed by his numerous works to the advancement of the cause of education. Hesychius, the grammarian of Alexandria, writing about the end of the fourth century to his friend Eulogius, thus expresses his opinion of the dictionary of Diogenianus, and its superiority over those of his predecessors, and the compliment may not inaptly be applied to the compilation of Mr Reid:-' But after these arose a certain Diogenianus, a man of industry and taste, who, having brought together the forementioned books, and all the words dispersed through all, united into one compilation, in alphabetic order, all of them; I mean the Homeric, and the Comic, and the Tragic terms, and those which occur in the Lyric poets and the orators; nor these only, but also such as are to be found in the works of the physicians and of the historians. In short, no word, so far

* Monthly Medical Journal, vol. iii. pp. 257–8.

as we are aware of, did he omit, whether of the ancients, or of the writers of his own time.'

ART. IV. Travels in Luristan and Arabistan. By the BARON C. A. DE BODE. 2 vols. London: J. Madden & Co. 1845.

ARABISTAN, OF KHUSISTAN, is that portion of Persia which lies at the head of the Persian Gulf, bounded by the Turkish territory and Arabia on the west and north-west, and by the mountains of Luristan on the north-east. The district of Luristan which thus lies parallel with Arabistan, is itself bounded on the north-east by the plains of Isfahan and Fars. This mountainous region is inhabited by an uncouth and wild race of men, and has been but little penetrated by Europeans.

It is not, however, either in Arabistan or Luristan that we first meet with our author. The first volume opens with preparations for a journey from Teheran to Isfahan, with the purpose of ultimately visiting the ruins of Persepolis. Nothing remarkable occurred in this journey; but on his arrival at Isfahan, the Baron takes up his abode in the house of M. Eugene Boré, a missionary,-whether Protestant or not we are not informed,and from him receives some interesting information as to the state of Muhammedanism, and the prospects of missionary suecess in that quarter of the world. The simple fact, that M. Boré has opened a Christian school at Isfahan, and that it is attended by Mussulman children, shows that the Persians are less bigotted than their neighbours the Turks. This is in a considerable degree accounted for by the progress that the Suffi sect have made. of late years. They are the liberal or movement party in Persia, anxious to accommodate their religion to the spirit of the times, and in many cases indifferent to all religion whatsoever. In consequence probably of the dissemination of these principles, the ecclesiastical power is gradually waning before the civil, of which the author of this volume gives a notable example.

"The Lutis are a band of the most unprincipled and worst description of individuals, who club together, and are mixed up with all the broils which happen in Persian towns, where the police has not much power. At Isfahan they once formed a regular gang, committing outrages in open day with impunity, because they were protected by the clergy. Their excesses and audacity had arrived at such a pitch, that after the death of Feth- Ali-Shah, one of these Lutis, named Ramazan, was proclaimed king by his associates, and styled Ramazan-Shah. Gold and silver coins were even struck in his name, and it was only by a rival Luti that he was put down. This was all a farce; but the peo