CHAPTER IV.

DESPOTISM OF THE TUDORS, 1485-1603.

In 1485 the marriage of Henry Tudor with Elizabeth of York united the two warring families. Henry VII. at once put down all forms of violence that had arisen during periods of unrest. That the ordinary courts might not be overburdened with matters of lesser detail he instituted the so-called Court of Star Chamber-given the name because of the star-sprinkled ceiling in the room where this court was held. During the Tudor reign it never became so dangerous to public safety as under the Stuarts, but from the first it was unconstitutional, providing a court outside the jurisdiction of the laws of the land.

Henry was a thrifty sovereign whose economies soon replenished the empty coffers. During his reign Columbus discovered a new world and set the imaginations of Europe afire with the hopes of great accomplishments, some possible, others impossible. Henry rewarded the Cabots ten pounds for their discovery of "the new island"-Newfoundland. During this age, too, the new learning spread into England; the humanists brought a fresh spirit into the staid methods of universities. Wars were avoided and England's position with other countries strengthened by marriage alliances with Henry's children. His eldest son Arthur was married to Catherine, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. He died a few months later, and after Henry VIII.'s accession he married his brother's widow. Mary was pledged to the king of France and Margaret given in marriage to James IV. of Scotland.

Henry VIII. was heartily welcomed by his people. Young, athletic, well educated, handsome, he was fitted to win the hearts of his subjects. For many years he entrusted matters of state largely to wise ministers, several of whom had served his father. Much of Europe just at this time was under the rule of young kings, Francis I. being king of France and Charles V., grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella, king of Spain and Austria

and Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, including Germany and much of Italy. Both wished to gain the alliance of Henry VIII. To this end Francis I. and Henry VIII. met for a few days' conference and royal entertainment not far from Calais, on the "Field of the Cloth of Gold," called so because of the sumptuous hangings of silver and gold cloth over the tents prepared for the two kings. The nobility of both countries feasted and enjoyed magnificent entertainment, but the result was slight for England and the cost immoderate. However, the young English king was far too popular to call forth criticism on this

account.

Catherine was several years older than her royal husband and as all their children save Mary died in infancy, Henry grew restless for an heir. The queen already was prematurely old and an invalid; Henry became infatuated with Anne Boleyn, one of the maids of honor attending the queen. Casting about for an excuse for divorcing Catherine, Henry bethought him of an old canon law which forbade a man to marry his brother's widow. Thereupon he instructed Wolsey, his long trusted minister, to obtain a divorce for him from the Pope. This Wolsey was unable to accomplish, the Pope refusing Henry VIII. the privilege of putting away his wife. This commission of Wolsey occupied considerable time and the matter dragged on until the impatient king conceived the idea that Wolsey was responsible for the delay and heartlessly turned against him, arresting him on idle charges, divesting him of all his property and finally causing indirectly the death of the broken-hearted old man.

Now occurred a new chapter in the relation between king and Pope, logical from earlier happenings in this long struggle. The English had never taken kindly to attempts of the papacy to control matters in the island. Particularly at this period when a spirit of nationality was strong was there objection to any foreign interference. Parliament was ready to follow the king's wishes and now declared that the king of England was head of the English Church and that the Pope had no more authority in England than any other foreign bishop. All powers thitherto exercised by the Pope were transferred to the king. This was not done with the mere desire to favor Henry. On the contrary, the Protestant Reformation which had been work

ing such changes on the continent was even now penetrating to England and already men were thinking about religious matters for themselves. Nevertheless, no radical change was brought about at this time aside from transferring to the king functions previously in the hands of the Pope.

Henry married Anne Boleyn and called a council of Churchmen to pass upon the legality of his first marriage. Dependent upon the king, they naturally gave the answer he desired—that his first marriage had never been legal.

The next step in the Church problem was the confiscation of monastic property by the crown. It is true that the monasteries had done their work and that those now entering them were often inferior, even worthless. Yet the methods employed were needlessly severe and many unaccustomed to contact with the world were thrown out into it to seek a living. Relics and shrines were destroyed and pilgrimages forbidden. The more intelligent had already ceased to believe in them as they had done in the Middle Ages. No change of doctrine was to be allowed and disobedience in this regard was punishable by death. The time was dawning, however, when legislative bodies could no longer control men's minds or beliefs.

More difficult did it prove to get the devout Catholics of Ireland to acknowledge Henry as head of the Church. English influence had not amounted to much in Ireland before the days of Henry VII. Earlier rulers had styled themselves "Lord of Ireland" and let the matter rest there. Henry VII. had a law enacted which provided that no act could be submitted to the Irish Parliament until it had been previously submitted to the king of England and his council. In 1541 Henry VIII. proclaimed himself King of Ireland.

Henry had three children: Mary, daughter of Catherine; Elizabeth, daughter of Anne Boleyn; and Edward, son of a third wife, Jane Seymour. By his remaining three wives he had no children. Parliament passed an act allowing him to fix the succession, for which child had first claim was uncertain. He determined that his son Edward should first succeed him, to be followed by heirs should he leave them; then should follow Mary and last, Elizabeth. It so happened that all three ruled in turn and none left heirs.

Edward VI., who followed the now unpopular Henry VIII.,

was always frail in health. He had been educated a Protestant and under his influence the Protestant Reformation made rapid strides. The services were simplified and many forms of the Roman Church abolished. He dying early, Edward's sister Mary became England's first queen.

Daughter of Catherine of Spain, as might be expected, Mary was a devout Romanist, and she at once began to undo all that the Protestants had accomplished. Of course there were many fervent Catholics who welcomed a return to the religious forms that were dear to them; they had believed the break with Rome to be morally wrong. These were Mary's firm supporters. There were others who had become adherents to Protestantism; they were the ones whom Mary persecuted; finally there was a party that favored a return to the conditions under Henry VIII., when the Church was free from Rome, yet otherwise unaltered. Acting from the highest motives, Mary's reign was a time of oppression and terror. In her half-frantic zeal to restore the Pope to his earlier position and to restore the earlier faith, she caused many to be burned or otherwise put to death. She married Philip of Spain against the wishes of her best counsellors, and later pined because he neglected both England and her queen. Calais, so long held by the English, was recovered by the French, and altogether, Mary died lonely, disappointed and unloved. The nation turned with relief to Elizabeth, from whom all factions hoped for much.

Queen Elizabeth was a remarkable woman. She inherited much of her father's capacity to govern and all of his imperious will. Well educated and broad minded for her age, she never stooped to the petty motives that had actuated her sister. She wisely took a middle course in the matter of religion, favoring neither Puritan nor Romanist. She had the good sense to surround herself with the ablest men of her day and left many affairs to their management. She favored a peace policy and took care that foreign powers should be appeased. This was not easy to accomplish and several times war was with difficulty averted.

The inclosure of farm lands into sheep pastures had continued, although Parliament had passed several laws calculated to limit it. In Elizabeth's reign many skilled workmen, fleeing from religious persecutions in Flanders and Holland, as

well as from France, removed to England and brought with them the secrets of making fine woolen cloth. Manufactories sprang up and trade was increased by the new materials to be exported. English merchants sent their goods everywhere and commerce grew apace. Yet with all these new industries the idle poor drifted about through the land. Parliament finally made it an offense for one to wander about without employment and compelled the shires to care for the helpless by a tax levied for that purpose. Thus was the social problem settled for the time being.

During these years the adventurous were making voyages to the new world and some attempts at colonization were undertaken. These were at first unfortunate. English buccaneers were preying upon the Spanish galleons that came loaded with silver from Peru. Hostile feeling was growing between Spain. and England. Spain resented the help the English had given Holland when the Netherlands freed themselves from the iron rule and cruel persecution of Spain; both countries were jealous of their trade; Philip was piqued because Elizabeth declined his offer of marriage, and finally he believed it to be his duty to put down a ruler already deposed by a verdict of the Pope.

Before the storm broke, the English pirates performed many depredations upon the seas. At last Spain fitted out a fleetcalled an armada, and in 1588 this "Invincible Armada" started through the English Channel for Flanders-now Belgium-where it was to take on board a large Spanish army and sail for the English shores. All Englishmen hurried to the defense of their country and their queen, and even the Catholics as a rule aided her. English ships harried the progress of the Spanish fleet, and off Dover a battle was fought. A storm added to the general discomfort of the Spanish, whose ships were scattered and for the most part destroyed.

This triumph over the Spanish navy filled England with pride and great rejoicing. In all lines of activity and thought a new impetus was felt. No longer was there fear of Spanish marines heretofore the most formidable in the world. Englishmen were suddenly awakened to their possibilities. Hope ran high. Trade was extended; settlements in the New World were shortly after undertaken in earnest. In literature the spirit of these glorious years was reflected. The drama,