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From the North Western Farmer.
Scientific Farming.

BY R. T. BROWN, A. M., M. D.

In the last chapter we reached the conclusion that the growing crop of vegetation is furnished with the materials of its growth mainly from the decay of previous growths, animal and vegetable. The solid part of this food is stored away in the soil, in the form of compounds soluble in water, but the atmosphere is the storehouse of the larger portion of the material sustaining vegetable life and growth. Either in the form of permanent gases, or of temporary vapors, there flows into this great common receptacle, from the whole organic world, a constant, though not uniform, stream of vegetable food. We will not, at the present, look further into the sources of this common supply, but turning to the plant itself we will consider, for a moment, the conditions most favorable to its appropriating a large share of this common stock of food. Plants take in food at their two extremities-the leaf and the root. A large and healthy leaf surface, and a corresponding root surface, are the conditions of vigorous growth, so far as these relate to the plant itself. The health of the plant, and its ultimate productiveness, demands that the two absorbing extremities should be well balanced; and nature constantly strives to maintain an equilibrium between the extent of leaf surface, and the number and distribution of rootlets. There is really as much difference between a root and the spongiola, or rootlets, by which it terminates, as there is between a stem and a leaf. The measure of root absorption is not so much the aggregate length of root, as the number of terminating roots-for roots in healthy growing plants always terminate in open mouths. There has long been a dispute between practical farmers and theorists, on the subject of the effect of breaking the roots in the cultivation of crops. The farmer insists that in plowing close to his corn, and thus breaking many roots, he greatly promotes the vigor of his crop; but the man of theory tells him that he is destroying the organs by which alone his corn can draw nourishment from the soil, and in the proportion in which he breaks the roots, he is injuring his crop. Now, true science will grasp all the circumstances, and not fail to reconcile the conflict between them. It is true that the first effect of breaking a root is to rob the plant of the use of the mouth at the extremity of the root broken; but nature, ever watchful, rallies her forces to repair the injury, and directly the broken root sends out

each

half a dozen, or more, of lateral branches, terminating in a rootlet capable of absorbing as much as the one originally destroyed. But it must not be forgotten that this multiplication does not always follow the breaking of roots. If the growth of an annnual plant be far advanced it does not readily reproduce its injured roots. About the time when corn begins to joint it has a tendency to throw out long, slender roots. If these be cut at this period of growth, they very readily repair the injury by multiplying themselves, thus adding greatly to the vigor of growth. After the tassel has appeared, roots should be broken with caution. If the season should prove favorable, and August be warm and showery, no injury will result, and even the crop may be benefitted by close plowing at this period of growth; but, on the other hand, if dry, hot weather follows this late plowing, the broken roots will merely heal over, leaving no absorbing surface, and reproducing no new rootlets. Therefore, we may safely conclude, that close plowing, and, conse quently, breaking the roots in the early stages of corn cultivation is multiplying the rootlets and thus promoting growth; but late in the season it will always be hazardous.

In the cultivation of fruit trees, or other perennial plants, the same law holds good-root pruning early in the season, multiplies the number of rootlets; but late in the season it has a contrary effect.

But when, by proper attention to the most perfect development of roots and leaf, the farmer has placed his crop in an attitude to draw his full share from this common store of vegetable food, he has not done all that can be done to produce the largest yield from the ground. He may create a local and private supply of his own, or rather he may withhold the products of decomposition arising from the decay of his own plants and animals, from the common stock deposited in the atmosphere for public use.

When speaking of the nature of ammonia and its importance in the vegetable economy, in a former number, we alluded to this subject of absorbing the gases from the atmosphere and retaining them in the soil; but we come now to speak of holding them as private property from the hour of their birth till the growing plants require them. This process is known as coMPOSTING. It consists in placing the waste matter from the barnyard and the house, together with all other animal and vegetable matter that can be conveniently procured, in such a condition as will favor the most rapid decay, and with it place such substances as will either absorb and

hold the products of decomposition, or will chemically combine with them to form compounds that will be permanent and involatile. I well remember the time in Indiana when it was not an uncommon practice to throw out manure around the log stable till it accumulated in such formidable piles, that it became easier to pull down the stable and remove it to some other location than to remedy the difficulty in any other way. Now, however, the thrifty farmer has his "manure heap," to which, from time to time, he contributes the accumulating rubbish of the barnyard, more for the negative purpose of getting it out of the way, and giving a neat and cleanly appearance to the premises, than for any positive good that is to be derived from the manure. From this heap, as decomposition goes on, carbonic acid, ammonia, sulphurated and phosphurated hydrogen, &c., escape in a constant stream, with an odor as rank and villainous as that which offended Falstaff's nostrils.

In this re-arrangement of the organic materials, nitrates, carbonates, and other salts of ammonia and potash are formed, but these being soluble are washed out of the mass by the drenching rains to which the unprotected pile is exposed, till in the end little else remains but the redundent carbon of the organic substances decomposed. This is the "well rotted manure" of which the farmer often speaks. A good absorbent it is indeed the very best, but in its preparation all the available plant food contained in the original material of the manure heap, has been suffered to go to waste, or at least has been added to the common stock in the air. The process of composting is different in different countries, but the principle involved is the same in all. Organic matter, moistened with water and covered with vegetable mould, or clay loam, will retain all the gases escaping from its decomposition. This is the fundamental principle of preparing composts. A convenient application of this principle is to place a row of posts in the ground so that they will stand about eight feet high and three or four feet apart. About six feet from this and parallel with it place a similar row. Extend these to any convenient length and put a temporary roof over them. Place rough boards loosely against the inner side of each row of posts as you proceed with the construction of your pile. Begin your "heap" by putting in a layer of stable manure, barn yard litter, &c., about a foot deep. If it is not sufficiently wet, moisten it with water, and proceed to haul " swamp muck," (which is nothing more than the black mud from the bottom of any swamp or pond,) and cover the manure to the depth of from ten

to fifteen inches with this. Over the muck, lay another foot of manure moistened, and follow it with muck, and so continue on, raising the boards on the sides as the heap goes up, till you have reached the top of the posts. These several layers may be added from time to time as the rubbish accumulates about the barnyard, being careful always to complete the last layer as far as you have material for it, and leave it covered with muck.

The muck should be prepared and hauled in the fall when the swamps are dry, and the material much lighter to haul. If the compost heap consists largely of stable manure, or of animal substance, the covering of muck will be required to be much thicker than if it is litter or straw. If the heap heats much, apply more water, and if there is any bad smell about it, give it more muck, or sprinkle over the manure a little plaster of Paris before you cover it with muck. A small addition of quick lime will hasten the decomposition and add to the value of the compost. In about six or eight months time, a pile thus constructed will, on cutting through it, present the appearance of a uniform black mass of very high fertilizing power.

Pet Hawk, to Scare Yellow Birds. A friend in Chester county, gives us the following notes:

NOTE 1ST.-"Some ten days ago, the little yellow birds made a strong attack on our seed patch, and seemed likely to eat it up. We had a pet sparrow-hawk, which we used to keep birds out of cherry trees. I brought him out and tied him in the patch to a post. A panic and a scattering at once ensued, and never a bird has been seen to eat seed. I apprehend that pet hawk might be very useful to the gardener. The other birds seem to know them very well. The little ones get away in a hurry, but robbins and blackbirds seem disposed to dispute the territory.

NOTE 2ND.-"Rabbits and ground hogs have been making continuous attacks on our fine cabbage patch.

"The remedy adopted was to tie a useless dog in the patch, and give him there, shelter, food and drink. Results: no more cabbage taken.

NOTE 3D.-"We had the most perfect bed of cabbage plants I ever heard of, raised along side of our chicken yard, and near the coops where the little ones were raised."-Practical Farmer.

A soil may contain all the elements necessary for fertility, be sufficiently moist, and still not be fertile unless air have free access.

Grape Culture.

BY WM. GRIFFITH, OF NORTH EAST, PA.

The primary conditions of successful grape culture, are, a well adapted climate, suitable soil, strong healthy plants, of varieties suited to the particular locality to be occupied, and thorough tillage.

Many other things are important, and by no means to be disregarded; some of which, in order to secure any great measure of success should receive careful attention; but these are altogether indispensable, as experience has abundantly demonstrated.

The isothermal lines indicate with tolerable accuracy, the requisite temperature, and with due deference to different varieties, may be relied

upon to determine the boundaries and fix the limits of what may be regarded as grape or wine growing districts.

It will be borne in mind that these lines are seldom found to traverse the lines of latitude, for any considerable distance, being interrupted and varied by local conditions, as by large bodies of water, altitude, &c., so that, in many instances, they cross lines of latitude at angles quite acute, so as not to be recognized, except by scientific observations; in other cases they are interrupted and diverted suddenly, with variations of several degrees.

Perhaps it may considerably abate the anxiety of some who are about to plant vineyards upon the south shore of Lake Erie, to be reminded that in the application of this test, we are nearly in range with Cincinnati; and I will take occaɛion here to observe, that additional encourage ment is guaranteed by the fact that the rain fall, during the growing season, is at least one fourth less on our lake shore than at Cincinnati, and along the southern boundary of Ohio; and when it is remembered that, except in the very driest seasons, we have here more rain than is desirable, the relative chances of success are seen to be greatly in our favor.

In making these comparisons, I by no means intended to undervalue the Ohio valley as a grape or wine district. My only object is to relieve our own cultivators from their ill-founded apprehensions and misgivings, regarding low temperature, &c. Again, those districts, or sections of country where the health and vigor of vegetation is maintained for the greatest number of days, are, as a general rule, most favorable for growing and ripening the grape.

To maintain the life and vigor of grape foilage for the longest possible period, is the great desideratum in grape culture; and hence those

sections of country most favorable to this condition, may be regarded as the grape district.

At the first view, the reader will be likely to conclude that these sections are to be sought for in the Southern States, that, as a matter of for grapes as we pass to the north. course, the country will be found less favorable

But this is by no means the case. Indeed it is
so far otherwise as to fix the southern limits of
It is the opinion of the writer, from many years
practical grape culture north of the 30th parallel.
experience and careful observation, that the nar
row belt of country lying along the south shore
the best localities on the continent, east of the
of Lake Erie, will compare very favorably with
ter) in its adaption to growing grapes.
Rocky Mountains (or west indeed, for that mat-

frost, both late in the spring and early in autuma,
Thus, while the unseasonable and blighting
souri and Southern Ohio we are here so far ex-
is the great terror of our grape growers in Mis-
empt, as to be almost entirely freed from anxiety.
Again, colder periods have been realized at Cin-
cinnati, and even as far south as St. Louis than
South shore."
ever have been registered along our favored

to growing grapes, there has been, and still con-
Regarding what kind of soil is best adapted
tinues to be, a great variety of opinions. On
the one hand it is contended that clay soils are
always to be preferred, and the stiffer and the
heavier the better; while others maintain the su-
periority of the light soils, and, as if insisting
upon the opposite extreme, they tell us the
"lighter the soil the better;" while others again,
planting themselves (and their vines as well)
upon middle ground, prefer a gravelly loam, or
shale, with a slight mixture of clay, and always,
the drifts, to any and all other conditions, or
combinations of soil.

But it is worthy of remark, that very satisfactory results have frequently been realized upon every variety of soil, and therefore, by the every where recognized rule "by their fruits, &c.," no composition of soil, as yet occupied, can, as B matter of course, be rejected. The truth is, the nature and condition of the sub-soil, are of far more consequence than the nature or composition of the surface; and as my main object is to impress and instruct beginners, I will take the liberty to add, though perhaps out of place, in a formal discussion of this subject, that atmospheric conditions, aside from temperature, are vastly more important than anything relating to the soil, or the depths below, intermediate or remote. And yet, it must be borne in mind, that a dry soil, or a porous sub-soil, or such thorough

The Catawba is a splendid grape; the Dela

and complete drainage as will allow the water to pass freely from even the lowest roots, is indispen-ware is even better than the Catawba; while I do sable. And as this is a condition hard to maintain, or even to secure temporarily, except at an expense absolutely impracticable, upon the stiff clay beds, my own preference is for a lighter soil, and always for the drift soils. But more upon this point, when I come to consider the preparation of the soil for planting, &c.

In putting out a vineyard, it is all important to secure strong, healthy, well rooted plants. The conditions if "feeble and sickly ;" and "vigorous and robust," or healthy; belong as well to | the vegetable as the animal kingdom; and when it is considered, that these habits are as often "constitutional" in the one case as the other, the relative value of good and poor plants, or rather the desirableness of the one, and the worthlessness of the other, will be apparent. What farmer does not know, that a two year old steer is less valuable than a yearling of the same size and proportions; and in this respect, only in a greater degree, is a "yearling" more desirable than a two year-old vine.

I have a vineyard, embracing several acres, and planted with five varieties, in about equal proportions, in the spring of 1866-last year only sixteen months since, from which, in about fourteen months, I expect to gather grapes enough, at a very moderate price, to pay the entire cost of the land, which was $200 per acre; while a neighbor of mine, planting at the same time, will not get grapes enough to pay for gathering. And just here I will take occasion, most earnestly to invite and urge the neighboring grape growers to call when convenient, and examine this vineyard; and though it may seem like boasting, I will venture to suggest, that it will pay them, even though they may have to step a little out of their way.

In relation to the adaption of varieties to particular localities, or section of country, I observe, that our experience will not warrant a definite determination in all cases, or even generally; nor can we perhaps even expect to be able to satisfy ourselves, in a majority of cases, except by that only sure test experimental demonstration. "Try all things" is wisdom's injunction, and one that should be "brought home" to every one about to plant a vineyard to a new variety, or one that has not been fairly tested in his near vicinity.

No grape should be regarded as of any value, for vineyard purposes, when, as a general rule, it does not carry a healthy leaf throughout the growing season, and mature both fruit and wood perfectly.

not hesitate to affirm, that the Iona is better than either. But any and all of them are good, "very good." Plant them, you who are so fortunate as to occupy sections and situations known to be favorable to their productions; but you who are so unfortunate as to be situated outside of the boundaries of "Canaan"-(though as for myself, my Canaan is limited by these lines, and if I was not safely within them, I would "strike my tent" at once and travel; nor should the sole of my foot "find rest" until I reached the "promised land," even though I might "wander in the wilderness" for forty years)-you “Egyptians," plant you only such as Providence has provided, or will approve, be they Isabellas, Hartford Prolifics, Norton's Virginia, Ives' Seedling, or even Concords; and attend punctually and constantly to their proper cultivation. Gather in due season (not before) their luscious fruits, eat, drink, and be content; or if you find with the writer, that you cannot be satisfied with them, and such as these; why then "rise up quickly" and come to the "south shore," or go to any other place, where the choicest grapes can be grown as successfully, if indeed there be such places; and I for one, shall be happy to learn that there are many, and of great breadth.

The importance of thorough tillage, frequently stirring the surface, and keeping the vineyard entirely free from grass and weeds, it is believed is not very generally appreciated, even by our oldest and most experienced cultivators; and therefore, as I do not design to write lengthy articles, I will omit the discussion of this branch of my subject, for the present.-Erie Gazette.

KEEPING CIDER SWEET.-The Utica Herald states that A. G. Williams, of Hampton, Oneida county, has a method of preserving cider worthy of being generally known. Allow the cider to work until it has reached the state most

desirable to the taste, then add grated horseradish in the proportion of a tumbler and a half to the barrel of cider, and shake up well. This arrests further fermentation, and after remaining a few weeks may be racked off in clean casks, and the air excluded by closing the bung. Cider preserved in this way has a pleasant, agreeable flavor.

TO PROTECT FRUIT TREES FROM MICE.-Strips of old tin, wound around the collars of the trees, have been found a perfect coat of armor, proof against the attacks of mice.

Cream and Butter. Cream, as any farmer's wife can tell, is not all butter; every one hundred pounds of cream (not skimmed too deep) should yield about onefourth its weight in butter, one-fourth casein, and one-half whey, sugar, milk, &c. A wine gallon of good cream will weigh about 8 lbs., and will, or should, give about two pounds of butter. It is owing to the presence of sugar that the cream sours, as nothing can become sour without the presence of more or less sugar.

The next item for consideration is the separation of the butter by churning or otherwise.

The cream consists of small, oily globules surrounded by casein, which prevents them from uniting; when cream is heated these globules expand, burst and rise to the top in the form of butter in a liquid state. These globules will not unite without the presence of an acid; hence cream must always be more or less sour before butter will form. Butter made in this way will keep for an indefinite length of time, but will not, under ordinary temperature become solid.

to become sour (being repeatedly stirred to prevent the cream from rising to the surface and remaining there,) and as soon as a wooden spoon will stand in it, it is churned.

Fresh churned butter contains 96 per cent. of pure butter, and 16 of the constituents of milk, principally casein.

The number of quarts of milk required to form one pound of butter, varies very much.

Thus, from the Journal of the Royal Agricul tural Society of England, we find that the average yield of a herd of Ayrshire cows was 1328 qts. per year, and that from 94 to 94 qts. made one pound of butter. The average of a herd of Kerry cows was 1264 qts., but 8 to 8 qts. made a pound of butter. In Germany 15 qts. are allowed for a pound of butter.

Johnson estimates that in England, under moderately favorable circumstances, from 18 to 21 lbs. of milk will yield 4 lbs. of cream, which in turn will give one pound of butter. He also states that a good cow should yield annually 3000 qts. of milk, which, if butter be the object, will give 300 lbs. of butter, or one pound per day for the time the cow gives milk.

In Devonshire, a good cow will, for the first twenty weeks after calving, yield 12 qts. per day; this will give a daily yield 1 lbs. of butter.

When the cheese is agitated in a churn, the globules are broken, but at a lower temperature. The proper temperature for churning is from 53° to 55°; at this temperature will come soonest. The temperature will increase from four to ten degrees before the butter begins to form. When whole milk is churned 65° degrees is the proper heat. In either case, if the temperature is too low, it should be raised by boiling water, put in while the churn is in motion, and poured directly on the cream. It is better to have the heat a lit-bandry, volume II, page 404, 8 to 9 ounces per tle too low than too high.

Sweet cream may be churned, but requires more labor without improving the butter; in this case the cream must become somewhat acid before the butter will form.

The town of Rennes, in Brittany, is noted for its peculiar butter; the milk of the previous evening is mixed with the warm morning's milk, and the mixture allowed to stand for two or three hours, when the whole is churned. Those who practice this plan claim that they thereby obtain a larger amount of butter of a more delicate flavor.

Near Glasgow, in Scotland, the product of two or three milkings is allowed to stand until the cream rises, say from 12 to 24 hours; all is then poured, and left still, until the mixture is sour. A tough skin is formed on the surface; great care must be taken that this skin does not get broken, for, should the air obtain entrance, fermentation will take place; this will injure the butter and spoil the buttermilk.

In Switzerland a cow is thought good if she makes 40 lbs. during the ninety summer days. In Germany, the dairyman thinks 100 lbs. is a good annual yield. According to British Hus

day for ten months in the year, is considered a good return; so from 160 to 180 lbs. in ten months.

Next comes the consideration of the circumstances which affect the quality of the butter.

It has been proved that cows make the richest butter when they first go out to pasture in the spring; that they produce the hardest butter when fed on dry food; that butter made during the fall is best for keeping.

I have alluded to the difference in the first and last milk drawn; the difference also extends to butter made from the cream rising on this milk; butter made from the cream of the last drawn milk is far superior to that from the first drawn. In some of the most noted dairies near Glasgow this fact is taken advantage of; the dairyman raise large numbers of calves; these are allowed to suck the first half of the milk, and from the remainder the cream is raised for the production of butter.

The town of Epping is notorious for producIn Holland the milk of each milking is allowed ing the best and also the worst butter in Eng

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