causal relations; (3) coexistence; (4) necessity of the existence of actuality.

The individual stands forth free in the development of his ideas, but he is an individual circumscribed by his dualistic world. He belongs to the world of an unexplained spiritual substance on the one hand, and he is surrounded by a world of an unknown material substance on the other. There are three kinds of knowledge: intuitive, demonstrative, and probable.

The individual is intuitively certain of his own ideas. He has also demonstrative knowledge- he can reason logically and mathematically. But Locke's real problem does not lie with intuitive and demonstrative knowledge. The question that concerned him was rather, What is the character of our knowledge of the external world? The individual in the Enlightenment lived in a spiritual independence of matter, yet he had a feeling of uncertainty about his hold upon a world of matter so different from himself. It was a world foreign to his spiritual essence. With the deepening of the mind within itself and with its growing independence, the equally independent material world grew more difficult and distant. Locke feels this difficulty. How can man know this external world? How can the individual, with all his freedom, bring the external world under his control?

The highest degree which our knowledge of the external world can attain is probability, or an inference from many sources. Such knowledge is mere opinion, which supplements certain knowledge and operates in the large field of our daily existence. The spiritual individual stands in a kind of twilight region with the dull wall of the material world of probable existence looming up before him, the outlines of which he can barely dis

cern. On either side of this twilight existence lies the broad daylight of intuitive and demonstrative knowledge, and around it all the absolute darkness of ignorance. Our knowledge is much less than our ignorance because our knowledge is limited to our ideas and their combinations. Locke stood in the very presence of the philosophical Sphinx, but he made no attempt to solve its riddle - how the subjective series of ideas can have objective validity. For the answer to this we have to wait for Kant.

Locke's Practical Philosophy. Locke pursued the via media in his discussion of the practical problems that were at that time of burning importance in English society. He always kept in mind the spiritual man who is circumscribed by his own limitations. Morally, religiously, and politically the individual has to conform to the conditions in which he lives. But morality, religion, and government cannot get their authority from ideas inborn in the mind. All are the outgrowths of experience. Divine revelation can and has proclaimed only those laws which agree with human reason. Revelation may transcend but cannot contradict experience. Positive religion agrees therefore with natural religion but is less restricted. Having its shrine in the heart of the independent and free individual, religion needs no police protection. A free Church in a free State! This can be attained only by the separation of Church and State. (See Locke's Letters on Tolerance; also his Sketch of the Government of North Carolina for Eight English Lords.)

On the other hand, the moral law is a law of nature, although it is at the same time a law of God. Morality is rooted in authority of three kinds: the will of God;

the law of the State; custom and public opinion. Obedience of the moral law is happiness and happiness is the summum bonum. This is reached by the control of the mechanism of the desires. In both morality and religion the individual is final judge, for the individual is arbiter of his own happiness, and happiness is of more value than all else.1

Locke's political theory is along the same via media. In his two Treatises on Government he seeks to make good the title of King William to the British throne by a political theory, and he defended this theory against both absolutists and republicans. England has the honor of having the first constitutional monarchy and the first theory of constitutional monarchy. Locke could perfect Algernon Sidney's theory (Discourses concerning Government) because Locke had before him an actual model in the English government. He justifies the right of the individual to revolt under certain conditions. Political government is not a sacred innate idea, but has arisen out of experience as conducive to the happiness of man. The individuals and the government make a contract to serve each other. When either violates the contract, the State is at an end. To the advocates of the divine rights of kings, like Filmer,

1 Locke's theory of education is quite as unsystematically worked out as his ideas on ethics and religion, yet his ideas on all these subjects proved more influential than any system. His pedagogical ideas were the inspiration of European educational theory of the eighteenth century. The conception of the free development of the individual, the education in independence, learning through play, the free exercise of the body, the value of intuition in instruction, regard for personal peculiarities and development of personal character - all these pedagogical ideas are found in their kernel in Locke's Thoughts concerning Education. They are there stated in a more noble and comprehensive form than by Rousseau for they are founded on the ethical idea of the family. This prudent Locke lays out a conservative path.

political law antedated "nature"; to Hobbes, law came after "nature"; to Locke, law is "nature." To Filmer "nature" was a golden age; to Hobbes it was a shocking state to be got rid of; to Locke "nature" is harmony. Thus according to Locke the individual has through his experiences constructed his morality, his religion, and his government because they are conducive to his happiness, and at the same time they have their ground in the "nature" of things. The individual stands free among them, the central figure in the world.

The Influence of Locke. The philosophy of Locke became the fountain-head of the many divergent schools of thought of the Enlightenment. His Essay did not contain anything fundamentally new, and its presentation has little originality; but it voiced the thought of the eighteenth century so easily, and with such skillful avoidance of pitfalls, that it made Locke the most widely read and the most influential philosopher of his time. How is this to be explained? Locke gave to the contemporaneous interest in man a psychological method, just as Descartes had given to the Renaissance a mathematical method for its interest in nature. In the narrower sense Locke's method may be called psychogenetic and this governed the entire Enlightenment.

Four separate movements had their source in him: (1) From his theory of knowledge, in which the emphasis is laid upon the mind as active, came the empirical idealism of Berkeley and Hume; (2) from his psycho*logical analysis in the second and third books of the Essay, in which the mind is regarded as passive, came the sensationalism of the French; (3) from his theory of religion came Deism; (4) from his associationalistic ethics came the utilitarian ethical theories of the

English moralists. The most constructive followers of Locke were Berkeley and Hume. The others may be called the lesser Lockian schools; for although they may have exercised a much greater influence upon their own time, they were nevertheless only partial interpreters of Locke. We shall deal briefly with Deism and Ethics in England, next consider at length the philosophies of Berkeley and Hume, and then present in a summary but articulate way the development of the Enlightenment in France and Germany.

The English Deists. We have seen how Rationalism, especially in the case of Descartes, tried at the beginning to reconstruct theology without breaking with established dogma. Gradually, however, rationalism and revealed religion showed signs of divorce. Some of the rationalists came to take the stand that if reason can understand the nature of God, revelation is either incredible or superfluous. The revealed religions differ. The god of the medieval people is not the same as the god of the heathen nor as the Jehovah of the Jews. There are many religions and many sects in each religion. There must be to them all a common basis, which is the true religion. This was the creed of Deism or Natural Religion. Positive religions are only the corruptions of natural religion, or the religion of reason. Deism sought to separate religion from special revelations, which were looked upon as the irrational elements of religion. Bacon and Descartes had freed natural science from church dogma; Hobbes had freed psychology from the same dogma; Grotius had freed the conception of law from dogma. The Deists would free religion from dogma.

Deism was founded on three principles; (1) the