parts only meaning a closely knit unity of the whole. Otherwise differentiation would be dissolution.1

II. The Nineteenth Century in Germany. In Germany the situation was the reverse of what it was in England: German thought has remained fundamentally Romantic while Realism has been the episode. The problem of man's relation to his material environment has been merely an incident to the general Romantic problem of man's spiritual connection with the whole of life. When the early generation of Romantic geniuses died (Hegel in 1831, Goethe in 1832, see diagram) and had left no adequate successors, and when at the same time there was a sudden efflorescence of material investigation, there appeared a great harvest of materialistic theories. The split in the Hegelian school, the materialistic interpretation of the master's doctrine by Feuerbach and the younger members, the Convention of Naturalists in 1854 gave a temporary prominence to the doctrine of Materialism in Germany, which is still . kept alive in popular writings of the present time (for example, Haeckel's Riddle of the Universe). Nevertheless, as our diagram shows, Materialism was only an interruption to the native German Romanticism. In the nineteenth century the greater German philosophers are Romanticists: Herbart, Schopenhauer, Lotze,

1 In his application of these characteristics of evolution in the various sciences, he attempts to verify his law. He conceives matter and motion to be in continuous redistribution. It is the Heracleitan doctrine in the terms of the more elaborate modern science and with great wealth of material. There is the "Upward Way" in the integration of matter and distribution of motion; the reverse is the "Downward Way." It is, however, necessary to point out that while Spencer applies the law of evolution to all particular phenomena, he does not apply it to the world as a whole. He does not attempt to answer the questions Whence? and Whither? Thus his evolution conception is different in principle from the cosmic evolution as developed by Hegel.

Fechner, Nietzsche, and Hartmann. The call "back to Kant" by Kuno Fischer and. Lange shows that German Idealism is still true to its source.

The Revolt against Hegelianism. The influence of empirical discoveries and inventions upon philosophy can be nowhere better seen than in Germany. The speculative Romanticism of Hegel's teaching had been official and authoritative for many years. Upon his death the dogs of war, let loose by the new science, sprang upon the body of his philosophy. Rebellion arose within the school, and Romantic speculation itself was attacked from without. The controversy grew in dimensions when the party of the Restoration claimed Hegel as an orthodox Lutheran and formed the so-called Right Hegelians. The younger Hegelians saw in this the destruction of all for which the Enlightenment had been fighting. The old spirit of freedom became violent and soon the Left Hegelians were revolting from everything for which the old master had stood. Never occurred a more suddenly complete reaction! Rüge, Karl Marx, and Lassalle in sociology; Strauss, Baur, and the Tübingen school in theology; and Feuerbach in the philosophy of religion are the chief representatives.

Ludwig Feuerbach (1804-1866) is typical of this extraordinary development of Hegelianism. Already before Hegel's death he had broken with Hegelianism in his work, Death and Immortality (1830), in which he claimed that Hegelianism was too much mixed up with religion. He made a general proclamation of pantheism; and maintained that Hegelianism was not a philosophy of nature, but was a philosophy of the spirit, which Hegel had expanded to explain history. In view of the discoveries of science, how can the universal alone

be valid and empirical nature be contingent? Hegel is wrong about the place of religion. It must be explained psychologically, and Feuerbach, a fine spiritual nature, appealed from the traditional documents to the spiritual life of the individual.

Then Feuerbach entirely inverted the Hegelian philosophy. He began to teach a nominalistic materialism. Only particulars and what appeals to the senses exist. Experience and nature are the basis for thought; and he sought by examples from science to prove man's intimate connection with nature which in turn would prove the dependence of the spiritual world upon the material. As if by magic, at the touch of Feuerbach, the whole code of idealistic reasoning vanished and we find in its place sensualism and materialism.

The WISH is the important psychological factor which Feuerbach employed to make this transformation complete. Religion has always been what man wishes for himself. The racial nature of man objectively projects that for which it longs. The primitive man placed no limits to its wish and to the ideas founded upon its wish. Doubt has arisen when the objective fact has been distinguished from the subjective wish, but even to-day the wish breaks through the reason and constructs another kind of being a second world. Religion being a projected wish and therefore anti-rational, it is an illusion and a misfortune. It is the cause of all past suffering, for it has caused man to neglect the present positive world and transfer his attention and his conduct to a negative world. Heaven becomes valuable and the earth empty. Man surrenders his conscience and his reason to a wished-for God, so different from himself. Religion and civilization in the past have been in inverse ratio.