CHAPTER XI.

DIGGING UNDER DRAINS.

AFTER proper levels have been taken, and the rate of fall ascertained, the digging may commence, the workman being kept straight by a line, as represented in Fig. 78.

FIG. 78.*

The dotted line represents the bottom of the drain; the dotted lines forming a triangle, or wedge-shape, represents a section of the ditch, as seen from the body of the ditch. Every three or four rods, two narrow boards, having a slit sawed in from the upper end, should be placed on a line with the center of the ditch. A line is then placed in the slit of the board, at the end of the ditch, and continued to the other board, supported by frames or braces resembling on iron square-these latter are placed at the side of the ditch, and the line suspended over the projecting arm, to keep it taut, or to prevent it from "sagging." If the line is properly placed it will always enable the workman to ascertain whether the drain is of the proper depth, because the distance from the line to the bottom of the

*This cut is from French's work-but the plan has been adopted by ditchers in Ohio during the past twenty-five years.

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drain must always be precisely the same, whether the surface of the ground is level or full of undulations.

Without some care, a ditch will not be dug straight even where a line is used, for in passing over swells or elevations, if the surface of the top is not removed enough wider to allow for the regular slope of the sides, the bottom will not be straight, or the sides will be too perdicular. To correct this latter difficulty, a draining gauge, Fig. 79 or 80, is employed. These gauges consist of an

FIG. 79.

FIG. 80.

upright wooden strip, say, four feet in length, with a foot at the bottom, the precise width of the tile to be laid; and near the top a cross piece, the length of which is the exact width of the drain. Where great precision in the slope of the sides is required a central cross piece, as in Fig. 79, having for its length the exact width of the drain at that point, or rather a mean between the foot piece and upper cross piece.

The first spit, or spade depth of turf, or surface soil, is usually removed by a common spade; a stronger one being required than would be chosen for gardening purposes. The width of the drain, on the top, must always depend on the depth required; skillful drainers dig a much narrower drain than the unskilled. The narrowness of the drain is an advantage, there being less earth to throw out, and of course less to return. For a depth of three feet, one foot on top is abundantly wide, and many drains would not require so much. The crumbs are all shoveled out with a common shovel. It is usual, at this stage of the

work, to bring the bottom of the drain to its true level, at least so far as to correct any noticeable unevenness of the surface. The span level before described must be used occasionally, unless water be present. Sometimes a turf of only a few inches is taken off before the first full spit is dug.

The second spit is dug with the narrower spade or proper draining tool, and the crumbs are removed by a draw scoop; or a long handled shovel, with the sides turned up, will answer very well. The removal of the second spit brings the drain to two feet in depth, and seven inches in width on the bottom, unless greater width and depth are required. The third and last spit of a three feet drain is cut with the same narrow spade as the second, or one still narrower. The bottom is made of the exact width of the tiles to be put in, and when these are less than four inches across outside, the tool must be narrower; or if it be required to cut a channel three inches wide on the bottom, with a tool four inches in width, this is readily done, where the tool is a little curved, by holding it obliquely, instead of transversely across the drain. The crumbs are removed, and the bottom fitted for the tiles with the draw scoop. The drainer never sets his foot on the bottom of a narrow drain; in fact, he could not get it there. Whatever the size of the tile used, that must be the width of the bottom of the drain; there should be just room to admit the tile, but not the least possibility of its getting out of place.

New beginners in digging drains, as a general thing, remove double the quantity of earth necessary to make the drain. This is an error, however, which generally corrects itself by practice. Some drainers prefer making the ditch, say 18 inches wide at the top, and give the sides c, Fig. 81, a gentle slope, until a depth of two feet

is attained-leaving the bottom of the ditch, b, b, fourteen or fifteen inches wide. This part of the ditch may be made with the ordinary spade, Figs. 59, or 60. Then

FIG. 79.

the narrow spade, Figs. 61, 62

or 65, is used to excavate the remaining foot of earth, a; this leaves the bottom, 2, 3, or 4 inches wide-according to the tool used-and just the size for the tile. When this style of ditching is adopted, the tools, Figs. 67 and 70 are used to clear the bottom of all pieces of ground which may have fallen in, as well as to remove any inequalities in the bottom. The tile is then taken up with the short arm of the pipe layer, Fig. 74, laid in

the bottom of the ditch and properly adjusted.

"On Digging a Drain.-Before I proceed to describe my mode of digging, I will remark that a very great mistake is made by most drainers in removing more earth than is necessary. My men, for a 5-feet drain, only open the surface 18 inches wide, and at 4 feet they can do it in 12 to 14 inches; at 6 feet deep they allow themselves 22 inches; this is when the land is tolerably dry; when very wet and adhesive, they sometimes allow themselves an inch or two more, to prevent the earth touching their clothes. As they are paid by the piece, they are very particular not to remove a bit more earth than is absolutely necessary. In stony and hard soils, requiring the frequent use of the pickaxe, the workmen require rather a wider opening; but even so deep as 6 feet deep, it is seldom necessary to open 2 feet wide. It must always be borne in mind that the pipes can not be placed by the hand in such narrow drains, the bottom not being 2 inches wide. The drainers have a stick with a piece of iron like a long cock's spur, on which they place the pipe, and standing

astride on the top of the opening, place the pipes abutting against each other in a continuous line, giving them a tap or two to set them firm in their places. Great care is required to scoop out all the crumbs, leaving the bottom of the drain smooth, with a sufficient fall. The bottom of the drain should not be wider, if possible, than the outside diameter of the pipe; it is thus kept firmly in its place. A common carpenter's level answers very well; but the workmen are generally sure to give fall enough to spare their labor in going too deep. We never plow out for the laborers. They streteh a garden line, so as to open their work straight and true The ordinary spades are not at all calculated or proper for draining in tenacious soils. We use the patent grafting tools, made by Mr. Lyndon, of Birmingham; they are thin, well plated with steel, and ring like a bell, and will go easily into hard clays, when the common spades could not be used at all. They may he had of Mr. Lyndon direct, or ordered through the iron-mongers. The middle spits are removed by a narrow three quarter spade, with a projecting iron for the foot; and the lowest spit is taken out by a long 14-inch dagger-like spade, with two cutting edges, a sharp point, and an iron rest for the foot; this is worked edgewise first, and then removes a considerable thin, but broad deep mass. The scoop follows for the crumbs. All these tools may be had of Mr. Lyndon."

As digging ditches for drains is frequently done by contract, "by the job," or by the rod, we have deemed it proper to insert the following table, giving the number of cubic yards of earth to be removed in digging ditches: