UNDERGROUND CAUSEWAYS AMONG THE GREEKS.

We said that the Romans were acquainted with a mode of draining lands through trenches covered and filled with stone. We did not derive the origin of it from more ancient civilization, because we do not consider the subterranean canals built by the Greeks to remove enormous reservoirs of water, which might have caused extensive floods, as mere agricultural drains. M. Jaubert de Passa, in his Researches on Irrigation among Ancient Nations,1 speaks thus:

2

"Was the mysterious outlet of the lake Stymphalide toward the coast of Argos the work of man or caprice of nature? It is known that the water of the lake did run into two abysses situated at the extremity of the valley; when these openings were obstructed, the water covered a space of over 400 stadii, or about thirty miles. The river Stymphale, which the inhabitants of Argolida named Erasinus, was not the only one of which the course was partly under ground. The Alpheus, after having several times disappeared from the earth's surface, plunged into the sea, according to traditions,3 in order to go into Sicily, where it mingled its water with the spring of Arethusa. The plain of Orchomenes became marshy as soon as the subterranean ducts, regular outlet of the water from Mount Trachys, failed to be cleansed. The plain of Caphyes was sometimes overflown by the water of the Orchomenes. As a permanent protection for the country and the city, the magistrates of Caphyes caused the establishment of a causeway along the flowing canal, behind which water from various sources formed the river below.

"The plain of Phenea, next to the others, remained for a long time overflown. At a remote, but unknown epoch, an earthquake, according to some, a beneficent prince, according to others, opened two abysses or zerethra, which let out the water and made the land healthy; 5 finally, the valley of Artemisium, situate near Mantinea, and named Argos, on account of its sterility, became marshy as

1 Vol. IV, p. 36.

3 Pausanias VIII, 44, 54.

2 Strabo VI, cap. 39, and VIII, cap. 9 24. 4 Pausanias VIII, p. 23. 5 Pausanias, VIII, p. 14, 19.

often as water obstructed the gulf which was its outlet. This subterranean duct extended as far as Genethlium, a city built at the head of the lake Dine."1

Certainly, these immense underground works of the Greeks must have had the drainage of extensive districts for their object, but they were undertaken as a public hygiene, and not to enhance the fertility of arable lands. Agricultural drainage has this last as its special object; but this can not always be attained without some general work for the drainage of a whole valley.

We read, in Walter Bligh's book, third edition, printed in 1652:2

"As to the drain trench, thou wilt make it deep enough so that it may reach at the bottom cold, oozing, stagnant water. Say one yard, or four feet, if thou wishest for satisfactory drain. And furthermore, having come to the layer whereat rests the oozing spring, sink further down about the depth of an iron shovel, no matter how deep thou art already, if thou wilt drain thy land throughout. ..... But as to ordinary trenches, which are often dug out one or two feet, I say that it is madness and lost work, and I will spare the reader wherewithal."

These injunctions certainly are pertinent, and may serve as a guide even at this day; but one ought not to conclude from them, as some modern writers did, that, as no French agricultural author treated the subject as a specialty, and with sufficient details, all the merit of the introduction of open trenches belongs to England. OLIVER DE SERRES, who lived before Walter Bligh, and whose Theatre of Agriculture was printed in 1600, gives a very complete description of the underground causeways, strongly recommending the use of them. Not only does he consider the single trench, as did Columella, but

1 Pausanias VIII, p. 7, 20, 21, 25.

2 The English Improver Improved, or the Survey of Husbandry Surveyed."

he goes further; he treats of many together, he is careful to describe the main ditch as also covered, and every precaution to be taken in order to secure effective drains. As, Oliver de Serres was altogether neglected in the history of drainage, and his well-defined ideas having been attributed to divers authors, we will give, in extenso, a passage from the book of this great French writer on agriculture:1

"To discharge noxious water, the usual way is to open ditches, especially through plains and low places, these ditches becoming inclosures for the land. Let the land then be dug around and give the ditches proper width and depth, to fulfill both objects. They must be cleansed every second year, some time previous to sowing lands, on which shall be cast this detritus from the trenches, to be used as so much manure. But, should it happen that the field be full of springs, or underground oozing sources, external ditches are no longer sufficient; then will be required another and more peculiar remedy as will be shown, in order to rid inner land of this incommodiousness. Inasmuch as the evil of too much water exceeds in destructiveness, both that of shadow and of stones, to mend the former will require greater labor than to correct the latter; of this, finally, the profit as a recompense, comes out greater than from any other reparation that can be given to the land, so fruitful is that which relieves it from water; because thereby not only are wet lands improved, but pools and swamps are converted into exquisite plow fields.

"The examples serve us as good masters to do good husbandry. Where is the farmer beholding the beautiful wheat raised on drained swamps, that does not desire, in emulation, to imitate such profitable husbandry? The cause of this comes from a superabundance of water, which prevented land from being worked for several years; at the end of which, finding itself reposed, and thereby to have acquired fertility, returns it admirably and with profit. And how much more hope you will have from this, which by the ancient subjection to the springs, was never able to produce, which you will find preg nant with fertility! Beside the income, there is no doubt that from noxious water spread here and there, on your land, when collected

1 Theatre d'Agriculture, Second Lieu, t. 1, p. 97.

in one place, you could make a fountain spring according to places, so great and with such abundance of water, that it will suffice for the irrigation of meadows, which you will make on account of that, below the drained pieces, and indeed for erecting mills there, should the ground and other circumstances requisite be favorable.

"The ground you desire to drain must have a declivity, either small or great, without which the water could not run off. This being presupposed, a large ditch must be dug from one end to the other, always beginning at the lowest spot; into that trench many others, but smaller, may be joined on both sides, in order to discharge the water flowing from all parts of the ground. By this means, each supplying its portion, the large ditch collecting, the whole will be discharged. The large trench is, on that account, called mother trench, and the whole together, 'hen's paw,' from the figure of that animal's foot, whose claws stretch in toward its trunk. The extent and surface of the land give form to the ditches, because it is fit to make them longer and wider in proportion as your land is extensive and flat, which you drain; and on the other hand, they are required shorter and narrower, if it be small and sloping; because, within a narrow compass, generally, not so much water is collected as in a large one, and as much, nay, more of it will pour out of a narrow ditch with great declivity than a wide, gently sloping trench. About the depth of the ditches, it is not thus, for, in whatever part you dig, you must go about four feet deep, in order to cut off the source of the springs, which is the special aim of this business. According to the nature of the place, must the trenches be disposed.

"Should there be a low vale, with high ground on both sides, the mother must be dug in the middle and lower spot, lengthwise, as already said, into which must fall the other ditches from both sides. But having to drain only one hillside, in that quarter there will be some small ditches running into the mother trench, and disposed as will seem fit for the best of the work and premises; as also the length of all trenches is subordinate to the plan which dictates the order of them, according to the surface and site. Having the plan, reasonable fall and extent, a proper width will also be required for the small ditches; the latter should be three feet, and the mother five feet deep; by means of this guide, your intention will be fulfilled. And to avoid any mistake, let there be as many ditches, so long, so wide, without fear of excess on this score, that no source

of spring, or small fountain, be overlooked, in order to drain your land well, by the general gathering of its waters.

"Those ditches, large or small, must be half filled with minute stones and the other half with the earth previously dug out and leveled at the top, so that no trace of it even will appear, for the commodiousness' of tillage, which should be executed very well, the plow finding depth enough of earth before reaching the stones, through which water will freely pass and flow out at the spot designed for it, leaving the surface land free of all noxious moisture and fit to bring forth all kinds of cereals.

"A similar work must be applied to all estates, vineyards, meadows, orchards, and others which produce no fruit on account of too much moisture. If you have on the spot none but large, flat stones for supplying your trenches, before using them you must break them to suit this kind of service, and they should be placed into the ditch straight (upright) and not flat, fixing them beside so skillfully that they will not be too tight to prevent the flow of water. To have this business well done, begin right, that is, artistically and with order; through ease and without confusion you will succeed very well. It will be easy to draw all your ditches, by cautiously observing the places through which they are to pass; then you begin to dig them out at the lowest spots, casting the earth all on one side of the trench, leaving the other side free, to bring thither easily the stones, which must be thrown in immediately, for fear that, by delaying, the trench might cave in by effect of the wind, trampling of beasts, or any other accident.

"Thus your undertaking shall be completed at cae end, as soon as commenced, in prosecuting it until you reach the highest spot of the field. In the meanwhile the water will take its course as soon as the opening of its way has been performed, which could not take place, should you begin the work at the highest spot, for want of issue allowed to water; even this would disturb the digging by discharging into it. You will mind, also, that the issues of water be well managed, that they do not choke up afterward, because for want of issue water might retrograde and render your labor useless. This will be obviated by stones and mortar, put up by a master hand, so as to last long, especially at the spot where the main or mother trench lets out the water. You are finally advised that the extremities and ends of your small ditches, at their highest parts, need not to be as wide as in low places, not being compelled to collect there so much water as below; this, nevertheless, remains at your discretion, because they