FIGURES OF SPEECH.

21

our intellectual powers are reducible to three simple modes of working.

The first is Discrimination, or the Feeling of Difference, Contrast, Relativity. It means that the mind is affected by change, as in passing from rest to motion, from cold to heat, from light to dark) and that, the greater and the more sudden the change, the more strongly is it affected. The figure denominated Antithesis, or Contrast, derives its force from this fact.

The second power is called Similarity, or the Feeling of Agreement. This signifies that, when like objects come under our notice, we are impressed by the circumstance, as when we see the resemblance of a child to its parent. It signifies farther that we are made to understand things better, and to feel them more strongly, by means of other similar things. We are enabled to know something of the Desert of Sahara, by being told that it resembles a sea of sand. The Figures named Simile, Metaphor, Allegory, are modes of increasing the force of style in this way.

The third power of the Intellect is Retentivenbss, or Acquisition. The ability to retain successive impressions without confusion, and to bring them up afterwards, distinguishes mind; it is a power familiarly known as Memory. Now, the chief way in which memory works is this: impressions occurring together, become associated together, as sunrise with daylight; and, when we are made to think of one, we are reminded of the accompaniments. We cannot think of the sun's rising, without remembering daylight, and the other circumstances that go along with it. Hence, things contiguously placed are associated mentally; and one of the many consequences is that we often name a thing by some of its adjuncts, as when we say "the throne" for the sovereign, "gold" for wealth. Such is the nature of Metonymy.

Of the three powers of Intellect now named—Discrimination or Contrast, Similarity, and Retentiveness—the second, Similarity, is most fruitful in figures, and may be considered first.

FIGURES FOUNDED ON SIMILARITY.

3. The intellectual power named Similarity, or Feeling of Agreement, is the chief inventive power of the mind. By it similitudes are brought up to the view. When we look out upon a scene of nature, we are reminded of other similar scenes that we have formerly known.

This power of like to recall like (there being also diversity) varies in different individuals. The fact is shown by the great abundance of comparisons that occur to some men; for example, the great poets. Homer, speaking of the descent of Apollo from Olympus, says, "He came like night." The eloquence of Ulysses is described by the help of a similitude:—

"Soft as the fleeces of descending snows,

The copious accents fall with easy art;
Melting they fall, and sink into the heart!"

The Figures of Similarity are these:—1. Simile, or Comparison. 2. Metaphor. 3. Personification.

4. Allegory.

5.

Certain forms of Synecdoche. We shall first remark on the features common to them all.

OF SIMILITUDES GENEKALLY.

4. The tracing of resemblances among the objects and events of the world, is a constant evocation of the human mind.

In Science, general notions are classed together on the basis of some feature that they possess in common. We identify a great number of objects on the property of roundness, all else being different.

Some sciences are expressly styled Comparative; as, Comparative Anatomy, Comparative Grammar. The purpose of the former is to find out the points of community or likeness in the structure of Animals: the latter shows the similarities occurring in the midst of diversities in Languages.

Reasoning is often based on the similarity or identity of two or more things. When we infer that the men now alive will die, it is because of their likeness in constitution to those that went before them. This is called reasoning by Analogy.

A comparison is often intended to serve for an argument, as well as for an illustration. The following is an example:—

"It is remarked by Anatomists, that the nutritive quality is not the only requisite in food;—that a certain degree of distention of the stomach is required, to enable it to act with its full powers;— and that it is for this reason hay or straw must be given to horses, as well as corn, in order to supply the necessary bulk. Something analogous to this takes place with respect to the generality of minds; which are incapable of thoroughly digesting and assimilating what is presented to them, however clearly, in a small compass." (Whately.)

5. In all departments of composition addressed to the UNDEKSTANDrNG-in Description, Narration, and Exposition Similitudes are made use of to render the subjects more intelligible.

If, from some cause or other, a subject is but dimly conceived, one mode of assisting the mind, is to bring forward something of the same kind that we already understand. Our knowledge of the familiar throws light upon the unfamiliar object. Thus, the action of the heart, which is concealed from our view, may be made intelligible by comparison to a forcepump for supplying water to a town. An event in ancient history may be illustrated by something that has happened in more recent times. A man's character is brought home to us, when likened to that of some one that we already know. We often make subjects mutually illustrative through their community of nature; thus Painting and Poetry, as Fine Arts, elucidate each other.

6. A Resemblance is not a Figure of Speech, unless the things compared be different in kind.

The comparison of Napoleon to Cæsar is literal and not figurative; the subjects are of the same kind. The comparison of a great conqueror to a destructive conflagration, or a

tory and Poetry—resemblances are sought out to give
greater intensity or impressiveness to the meaning.
7. In compositions addressed to the FEELINGS-Ora-

that excites the feelings more strongly than the thing com-
For this purpose, the comparison should be to something
lively idea of the rousing effect of the ballad of Chevy Chase,
pared. Thus, Sir Philip Sidney, in endeavoring to give a

says, "it stirs the heart like the sound of a

trumpet."

Chaucer's description of the Squire, contains several com

"Embrouded was he, as it were a mede,
All full of frcshe fioures white and rede;
Singing he was, or floyting all the day;

parisons for raising the feelings:

freshe as is the moneth of May."

So, the following simile from the Odyssey is calculated to
tion:-"I follow behind, as in the footsteps of a God."
a more lively sense of the speaker's sentiment of venera-
Again, "Justice," says Aristotle, "is more

Eastern Star or the Western Star."

glorious than the

poetic character, occurs in Tennyson's description of the miller
An example of a simile elevating a common subject to a

in "Enoch Arden."

"Him, like the working bee in blossom dust, Blanched with his mill, they found."

class to be mentioned page 29, t e 5th

peals to the feelings almost exclusively; the 1st and 6th Of the examples of the Simile on page 29, the 5th addressed to the undertanding; while the rest fall under a sisting the understanding, and partly giving rise to feel8. Many comparisons have a mixed effect, partly asis rival Eschines to old sores in the body, which come out Demosthenes likened the statesmanship of such politicians

ing.

give

into painful prominence, when the general health happens to be disturbed.

Extract I. (appendix) may be referred to as exemplifying mixed effects.

In not a few instances, even in Expository Composition, the understanding is sacrificed to the feelings. (See Extract II.)

9. Some Similitudes enable us to picture an object vividly to the mind, and are called, on that account, picturesque; as in Chaucer's Squire, "With lockes crull, as they were laide in presse.”

These comparisons are much used in Poetry, and in the more poetical forms of Descriptive and Narrative composition.

10. Original comparisons, besides having the effects just stated, cause an agreeable surprise, and are introduced into composition with that view.

A comparison that is new and not obvious, strikes us with a pleasurable flash, even although contributing little, either to elucidate a subject, or to excite livelier feelings in connection with it. In the following instance, the agreeable effect arises, partly from the elevation of the subject (See Qualities Of Style, Strength), and partly from the detection of a certain resemblance between two things lying remote in nature :—" The actions of princes are like those great rivers, whose course every one beholds, but their springs have been seen by but few."

When comparisons have no other effect than the pleasure of surprise, they are often termed fanciful. This indicates one. of the meanings of Fancy. Luxuriant composition, as the poetry of Shelley or Keats, is apt to abound in this species of effect.

11. I. When Figures of Similarity are employed to give intelligibility and clearness-that is, to aid the Understanding—they must satisfy the following condi

tions: