quality. Six bushels have been found, on comparative trial, to be equal to eight of oats.* The British cavalry was fed on barley during the greater part of the Peninsular war, and throve upon their allowance, though it was delivered by weight, and was only 10 lbs. instead of 12 lbs. of oats; the barley being considered in that proportion more nutritive than oats, owing to the smaller quantity of husk. horses, which get an unlimited quantity, may be benefited by it, we will not deny; and a mash of boiled barley twice a week will be found to improve the general health of the animals, as evinced by the sleekness and glossiness of their coats, as it certainly has an opening and cooling effect on the bowels, which cannot but be serviceable when lare quantities are consumed of heating food; but we may be permitted to doubt either its necessity Now it follows from this, that we have no guide or its utility for farm-horses, commonly fed: or that on which we can more securely rely than the they require, in the winter months, more cooling weight of vegetable nutritive matter to regulate food than a bran mash, instead of their corn, with its consumption. Yet it has been contended that, an ounce of nitre, or common salt, on the Saturin the feeding of farm-horses, barley-though day night. heavier than oats, and containing a larger quanti- There is also a fact stated upon the authority of ty of extractive matter-does not contain so much Sir John Sinclair, respecting the heating effects of nutritive substance. It is said to be more watery, unusually large quantities of corn upon the health and therefore, if given weight for weight, to de- of horses, which is well worthy of attention. It prive horses of a portion of their regular nutri- is that of an extensive coach-master, who regument. An article in the 'British Farmer's Maga-larly allowed three bushels of oats daily to each of zine,' indeed, states the saving on feeding with his sets of eight horses, out of which, during the barley as amounting to £6 per annum, for each course of many years' experience, he annually lost horse; but that grain was given, instead of oats, a great number. Upon reflection, however, he by weight, without any distinction between the changed his mode of feeding, and allowed instead respective nutritive qualities of either; nor does it for each set,appear whether the statement was made from the actual experience of an entire year, or was only assumed to amount to it, from a calculation made on the savings of a shorter period. 1 bushel of beans, 1 ditto oats, 1 ditto hay and straw cut into chaff;— An account of its uses, in many instances, by the consequence of which was, that his horses Sir John Sinclair, states its being almost uniform-were as hearty and as able to perform their work ly given with one-third of beans, bruised or broken as they were ever known, and that he has only with the barley, or boiled, which is considered the lost one since the adoption of that plan.* In gentlemen's stables no other than meadowbetter plan; though it certainly was not boiled for hay is generally admitted, and it is in all respects regimental service, nor is the proportionate quan- the best; but farmers find more profitable uses for tities of barley and beans to oats stated: we are also led to believe that the former have been in it, in the feeding of fatting stock and cows; and most cases given by measure, in consequence of clover, either alone or with rye-grass, sainfoin, or tare-hay, though coarser, answers every necessathe cheaper price of barley. Bere, or Big, we also know to be sometimes substituted with eco-ry purpose for farm-horses, more especially when nomy for oats in the north, but the difference of cut into chaff and used along with straw. weight is not considered: in Norfolk, too, Mar- foin is commonly esteemed the first, and clover the shall tells us that, when barley is unsaleable at re- next in quality, but tare-hay, if well made, is very gular markets, it is sometimes given to horses, in hearty food: they are, indeed, so nearly alike, that which case it is usually 'malted,' that is, steeped it is unnecessary to dwell upon their peculiar profor a few days until it begins to vegetate, in which perties, and, were there even greater difference state it is thought to be less heating than when between them, there is seldom much room for given in the natural state. Being also frequently choice, as whatever may be the produce of a farm, it must be consumed, and no one thinks of purbadly harvested, the pernicious effects of heat, or chasing fodder for the working cattle. must, are prevented by boiling. We will not hazard an opinion on the proportionate value of oats and barley, which can only be fairly tried by first depriving two horses for some days of any kind of corn, and then feeding them for a considerable time upon equal weights of each grain; but we certainly do feel somewhat sceptical about the value so loudly insisted upon of late, of boiled corn as food. That postmasters' Marshall's Minutes of Agriculture, Digest, p. 43. In another experiment, besides that mentioned in the foregoing table, Sir Humphry Davy states the difference between 100 parts of oats and barley to be Expense. Sain From the foregoing statements, the necessary information may be collected as to the quantity and kind of food on which farm-horses may be supported at constant labor. They lead also to the important consideration of the annual cost of a team, and of the labor it may be expected to perform, without an accurate knowledge of which no correct estimate can be made of the general expenses of cultivation, or of the particular charges on separate crops. The quantity of the different articles of food, in fact, depends on the size of the horses and the labor they perform; the value, upon the prices of different seasons, and in every season upon the situation of the farm in respect to markets, particularly hay and roots, which bring very different prices at large towns, and at a few miles distance. It is for these reasons that the yearly expense of * Scottish Husbandry, vol. ii., Append. No. 23. Oats, six bushels per week for six months, at 23s. per quarter Three ditto six ditto Hay, six months at £1 1s. per week Shoeing, 10s. 6d., and farm expenses 5s. each 27 3 s. d. 10 0 15 0 6 10 3 6 6 £81 10 6 a horse's maintenance has been estimated at al- are given; but as draughts (light corn) are commost every sum, from £15 to £40. In the Lan-monly used, the quantity is proportionably incashire Report, the cost of a team of three, creased. Now, if the meaning of this be, that ploughing seven statute acres per week the year a cart-horse gets no more than that quantity in throughout, is thus estimated:one year, it must be either made up of other nourishing food, or he must be so badly fed as to be unfit for work. And, notwithstanding all that has been said of substitutes for grain-although admitting that roots may be economically and even healthfully substituted-we must beg leave to doubt this possibility when the animal is forced to exert himself to the extent of his power. In proportion to the work which he usually and regularly exerts, he may be in excellent apparent order: but push him; try him with a few days' harder than ordinary toil, and you will find that it is not an additional quantity of roots, but of sound corn, that he requires to sustain him. The reason is evident: he may fill his stomach with roots, but they will not supply the quality of invigorating and nourishing substance which corn supplies in the same weight; and having filled it, he can do Therefore, we repeat, that farm-horses moderately worked may do their regular days' labor with perfect satisfaction to their employer; but compel them to the full extent of their vigor, and there will be no advantage found in stinting them. When working cattle, more especially horses, are not judiciously as well as economically fed, they are either suffered to go out of condition, or provender is unnecessarily wasted; and thus, in either case, considerable injury is sustained through their deficiency of strength to perform their proper quantity of labor, or through the unnecessary expense of their keep. In the General Report of Scotland,† the feeding is calculated on some farms as high as 15 quarters of oats each, with 22 lbs. of hay, or an English acre of clover or tares, and a quarter of an acre of potatoes, yams, or Swedish turnips while they are on straw, and thus the expense of keep-oats being 25s. per quarter-is estimated for a pair at Interest on purchase, decline in value, and insurance from disease Food Harness, shoeing and farrier £. 8. d. 15 12 0 Some farm-horses, though working at the usual rate of common labor, are said to be supported during the summer on cut grass, almost without 'When no beans are grown, their winter food is oat-straw or hay; but in all other cases, bean-straw alone forms their winter provender, from grass to grass, with a mess every night of bean-chaff, potatoes or turnips, and a little small corn, all boiled together and seasoned with salt; and two feeds of oats per day, but only when hard worked.' On this fare they are stated to be kept in excellent condition, and others are said to consume only from 15 to 25 bushels, if good oats In treating this subject minutely, it would be necessary to review the various methods of feeding horse-teams, practised by different eminent farmers, but, besides that, the enumeration would be tedious, few men require such assistances to their judgment in forming an opinion of the most eligible mode, and it may be sufficient for the present purpose to assume that plan which can be most generally adopted, namely of feeding upon corn and hay, or straw, during the winter, and soiling in summer; leaving out of the question the savings which may be made by the most economical employment of roots. Five horses will also be assumed as composing a team; for, even if ploughed in pairs, three are sometimes wanted for other work; an odd horse is always useful; and with the aid of the farmer's own nag to hook on occasionally to a third plough, a couple of hundred acres Sir J. Sinclair, Husbandry of Scotland, p. 125. of medium soil, under a moderate rotation, and Berwickshire Report, p. 406. West Lothian, with a fair proportion of meadow, may be very p. 178. Library of Useful Knowledge, Farmer's Se- well managed with that number, if there be not ries, No. 18. Dumbartonshire Report, p. 251. ** Mid-much out-cartage; and they may be easily worked dleton's Middlesex, p. 97. *Original and Corrected Report, p. 584. † Vol. iii. p. 194. ttEssay on the Agriculture of the Vale of Forth, by Mr. Carmichael.-Prize Essays of the Highland Society, 1833, vol. iv. p. 24. by one carter and his mate, with a stout lad able to hold and drive, or one of the laborers, when a third plough is required. Supposing, then, the horses to be soiled from old May-day to Michael mas on grasses worth £6 the acre, with two 20 weeks, 140 per- 550 ches, at 9d. One horse One horse win Corn 10lbs. per 280 053 ter-feeding per Hay 14 truss, 1942 0 2 54 Straw 14 cwt. 1s. 0 1 3 week. 1 10 0 ployed, more than five days in each week, or 260 say 90£. per acre. It will perhaps be objected, that as all the other work of a farm, such as statute-labor, carriage of far-materials for drains, repairs, &c. is also performed by the same teams, the entire charge should not fall upon the tillage; but, as all those operations are incidental to the cultivation of the land, they may, in fact, be regarded as forming part of it, and 7 13 0 any separate estimate would not alter the total amount of the annual expense. Whenever it may be material to ascertain the actual cost of any specific work, the time it occupies being known, the calculation can be readily made according to the above valuation; and farmers would find it useful in 32 weeks, 0 8 11-14 60 enabling them to form a correct judgment on many Shoeing and farriery, points of great importance were they to make out an account of the actual expense of their teams, and to charge each day's work against the particular object on which it was employed. But in calculating the cost of the tillage of any one field, the mere charge of each day's ordinary work would be a fallacious guide; for that would only show the labor actually expended on the land without any share of the incidental labor of the whole farm: in such estimates, therefore, the annual expense of the team must be divided by the number of days consumed in tillage only; and supposing that to amount to but twothirds of the entire labor, it would follow that, when each day's labor throughout the whole year costs 78. the charge for a day's ploughing should be 10s. 6d. £23 90 The annual charge of maintaining a single horse being thus ascertained, there remains to be added to the collective expense of the team, the interest of the capital sunk in their purchase, and in that of the implements for their use, including a wagon and carts, with their gear; and allowing these to cost £140, and the horses and harness, one with another, to stand in £26 each, with ten per cent. for repairs and deterioration of value, the whole account will appear thus: Maintenance of 5 horses at £23 98. each, Interest on £270, cost of teams and implements, at 5 per cent. £13 10 0 Repairs and deterioration of dit to at 10 per cent. 27 0 0 £. S. d. 117 5 0 56 17 0 £224 12 0 The daily labor of a team must necessarily be regulated by the manner in which it is employed, as well as by its strength. In some of the southern and midland counties, the carters who gene40 10 0 rally sleep in the house, rise at four in the morning, feed, clean, and harness the horses, get breakfast, and are ready to go a-field at six-'clock, or after seven in the winter, when they work till two, thus making at the utmost a yoking of eight hours. When the horses return to the stable they have a little hay given to them while their attendants have dinner, by which time it is past four, when one of the men curries, feeds, and litters them down, while the other fetches their provender, either green or dry, and usually finishes his evening by a lounge at the smithy, either to get the ploughshare pointed, or to have some talk with his fellows, until the hour of eight leads him home to supper. Throughout the north, however, the usual hours of work are, in the spring and summer, from six to eleven, and from two to six, or seven, allowing the intermediate three hours for rest and feeding: in winter, at the utmost from seven to four, with one or two hours' rest at mid-day; though, at that season, it is a better practice to finish the day's work, without returning to the stable, at one bout of seven hours, during which the horses may get a feed from their nose-bags, while the ploughman takes his lunch, which he carries with him to the field. The common calculation is, that, taking the year round, an acre of land is thus ploughed in a day; and, generally speaking, this may not be wide of the fact: but the exact The annual labor of a man and a pair of horses, with the necessary implements, will therefore cost £89 168. 2d., or, throwing fractional parts aside, 68. for every working day; but, as many days occur on which they are only half, or not at all em *See note, p. 145, but those are assumed as the market prices; here they should be lower. In point of fact, no charge should be made for straw when it is not allowed to be sold; for, if not eaten, it must be consumed as litter; and when charged to cattle, it must be again allowed for, in account, as dung. The estimate of wages and board for each of the men is taken between the highest and lowest rate; for out-door and in-door servants were both kept either in, or out of the house-the amount, at a medium rate, would be nearly similar. quantity, and the requisite number of horses must is only twelve, while at the quicker rate it is sixdepend upon the nature and condition of the soil; teen miles; and that a ploughman must possess the season; the way in which the work is perform- more than ordinary strength and dexterity to go ed; and the sort of cattle employed. Notwithstand-through that degree of labor, and perform it well; ing the broad assertion 'that two-horse ploughs are for although he may rest himself occasionally by fully adequate to the tillage of any soil, howe-means of the plough tail, yet that is always at the ver heavy, it is certain that there is land in the expense both of the cattle, and of the regularity Weald of Kent, and the adjacent similar districts, of the work. Mr. Parkinson mentions an instance so exceedingly stiff and wet, that four powerful of an Irish ploughman who, in a medium soil, horses, or six strong Sussex oxen, are sometimes and with a nine-inch furrow, turned over at the brought to a stand still in breaking it up: the second ploughing, with a pair of horses of the mode of ploughing, too, sometimes requires that heavy dray kind, 1 acre and 20 perches (Irish meathe horses should go at length, in which case sure) in six hours and ten minutes, which is at the three are hardly more efficient than a pair abreast; rate of nearly 2 acres 2 roods in eight hours; the and it is well known to practical men that, even horses must therefore have walked during that with apparently proportionate additional strength, time at the rate of three miles an hour; but he adan acre of stubborn clay cannot be broken up in mits that no horses, with any keep, could have the same time as a ley of friable loam. Much maintained such daily labor for a continuance. ingenuity has been exercised to facilitate the exe- On the whole, therefore, it may be concluded, cution of field-labor; various forms of the plough that an acre and a half is the utmost that can be have been constructed to operate with less resist-ploughed with a common furrow, on any soil; and ance, and the work has been executed by the ap-that on an average, from an acre, to an acre and plication of less power. This is, no doubt, a great a quarter, in summer, and three-fourths of an acre improvement, when the purpose can be equally in winter, may be considered as the day's work of well attained. It is pleasant to see a ploughman a team; the strength being in proportion to the conduct a pair of well-trained horses to the field, land. and in a masterly manner perform the work which formerly required the aid of an awkward ploughboy and a number of unwieldy animals; and when the implements are good, and the ploughman in[It is not with the expectation that our readers can telligent and dexterous, this, no doubt, may be derive instruction for practice from the following diary, done. But it has been well observed, by a writer MR. CURWEN'S DIARY OF HIS HARVEST LA BORS, IN CUMBERLAND. of great experience, that fashion overrules judg-that it has been selected for their perusal. Harvest in ment, and too ill-appointed animals are often ex- Virginia is so widely different in every respect from pected to perform that which is sufficient for the harvest in the north of England, that scarcely any most powerful; the surface is slightly scratched, thing usual or proper in the one, would be fit for imiattention to preserve the depth of the soil is disre-tation in the other. The climate and unusual degree garded, and the progress of cultivation and fertility of moisture-the time of year-the reaping (or "shearretarded. Adequate force should be employed ing") implements-the kind of labor, and the manner to stir the ground to such a depth as a healthy of its application-all are different in that cold and vegetation requires; the breadth as well as the depth of the furrow, too, and the pace at which dripping region, from ours: and with our views, it it is turned, govern the quantity that can be plough-seems a wonder, under such circumstances as are nared in a given time. The ground gone over in rated, that all the wheat in the country was not lost, inploughing an acre is, with a broad furrow-slice, stead of being generally well saved. But this very about eleven miles, or with one of eight inches, difference of our circumstances from those here descritwelve miles and three furlongs, exclusive of turn-bed, will lend some interest to the statements—and there ings: and it has been ascertained, that a team, is another thing that will serve to increase the interest walking at the different rates of one and a half and two miles an hour, will plough the following to most readers, and it is this particular to which we quantity of a medium soil, to the depth of five especially invite attention. The pleasure which will inches, nine hours:be found in the perusal of this diary is almost entirely owing to the minuteness of the details. And if even a slight interest is thus produced, concerning a 10 20 locality and circumstances altogether strange to us, 11 10 much greater would it be, if as minute a statement was 12 0 presented of a well conducted harvest in Virginia. And such a diary, would not only give pleasure, but instruction, in the best and most effective form. Inches. 9 8 2 The difference in the quantity ploughed in these instances clearly demonstrates the value of action in the horses; but it must at the same time be observed, that the distance travelled at the slow pace It is scarcely necessary to state that Mr. Curwen was one of the most intelligent and distinguished farQuarterly Journal of Agriculture, No. XI. p. 714. mers of England. This diary is extracted from his reKent Report, 2d edit. p. 20. Surrey Report, (Ste-port to the Workington Agricultural Society of which venson's,) p. 195. In some of the red clay land, in he was the President.] the Newbury district of Berkshire, five horses find hard work in turning up three-quarters of an acre in a day. Berks. Report, p. 119. John Naismith, Esq., part iv. No. i. of the second vol. of the Appendix to the General Report of Scotland. "Park wheat-22 acres.] On the 28th of August, this crop was begun to be cut. It was less injured than I expected from the situation of the * Parkinson on Live Stock, vol. ii. p. 132. ground, which I attribute to its being drilled at twelve inches distance. Some parts were laid, but generally it was upstanding. Considering its low situation, it must be always subject to risk. If this had not been sown so particularly thin, the crop would have been entirely spoilt. There were 1135 stooks, or 51 upon an acre. The clover plant very good, and extremely clean. This crop was taken off beyond all expectations, and will be the first wheat in the neighborhood. The necessity of being most particularly attentive to cleaning and picking small potatoes, is apparent here; for there are still a great deal more growing than there ought to have been. They not only offend the eye, but injure the crop. "Gilderskill-30 acres.] One part (about five acres) was very much laid, and had a great number of black heads. I did not observe, however, any appearance of mildew. The wheat had been much injured by the frost. Sheep were put upon it for a few days; and where they had fed, it was much the best. It had been too proud before the sheep were turned upon it, and they did not like it. The season, however, became so wet, that they could not have been kept long upon it. The highest part of the field was extremely good. There were 1105 stooks, or 36 per acre. This wheat was so ripe, that had there come any wind before it was cut, there must have been a great loss from the shake. "Moor Close-42 acres.] The two fields which were quite a new creation, produced a very good crop. Some few acres were laid and injured;. but generally it was most productive, and had in one 802 stooks, and in the other 1058; and some parts of it turned out as fine grain as I ever beheld. Had the season been favorable, this would have been a most surprising crop. Those who envy farmers their success, let them look to this season, and see the ruin which has threatened their whole produce; and unless the latter part of the season becomes favorable, I do not know how farmers upon wet ground will be able to support their stock. The turnips and cabbages have made no progress for the last three weeks, and it can scarce be hoped they will gain the weight of half a tole rable crop. "The advantage of being near a town is very great. I was able to muster, without giving extra wages, 220 persons. Women have 2s. per day, and work between nine and ten hours-men 2s. 6d. In difficult seasons, to be able to cut between 30 and 40 acres a day, greatly lessens the risk, and is an additional reason for having lands near towns under tillage. I attribute this to the plants covering the ground, and guarding the roots. The cover also kept it warm. The same observation is applicable to the pastures that were earliest cut. Turnips and other roots that were very forward, have suffered least. This unexampled season has been attended with difficulties I never experienced; and, unless the month of September turns out favorably, the distress will be general. The wet has arrested the growth of the turnip. No crops come up better, or appear more promising. The rain seems to have suspended the vegetative power of the earth, and checked the growth of plants of all kinds. Nothing could be more discouraging than this day. I have never known the ground wetter, at any season. The cabbages were equally stopped in their growth. "August 30th.] The incessant rain for five weeks saturated the ground to such a degree, as to put a stop to the growth of clover on wet soils, where it had been late cut. In some parts, the roots appear to have been affected, and the clover seemed to have lost its feeding quality. Plants appear to require the sun to bring them to perfection, as much as the earth does the heat of his beams to promote their growth. "I was not previously aware of the full extent of fortitude and patience required to make a good farmer. Philosophy is not an acquirement of learning alone: it is one thing to argue well, and another to adopt the maxims of wisdom as the rule of practice. In the midst of one of the violent showers so common in this climate, I was glad, with a friend who was along with me, to take shelter in the house of a small farmer. Presently after our arrival, the master and his servants were likewise driven in. The children received the parent with delight, and he returned their caresses. The felicity their endearments inspired, seemed at once to restore the calm and tranquillity of his mind. Domestic sunshine disarmed the merciless peltings of the storm. Its injuries seemed no longer felt or regarded. Struck with surprise I was resolved to prove whether this was the effects of indifference or real magnanimity. I began, with some asperity, to rail at the weather, which was answered by the good man with great composure, that God never sent a crop without a season to get it in." And having made this reply, which comprised all his knowledge and belief on the subject, continued his merriment and innocent pastime with the children. I know not what effect the recital may have on others; but on my friend and self it acted as an electric shock. We could neither refrain our admiration: and the train of ideas that flowed from it led us to this conclusion, that practical wisdom is the offspring of virtue, and the twin sister of happiness. "A twelve acre field of wheat at Moor Close, which had been fed with sheep, cut uncommonly well, and was, in general, very heavy, and an excellent grain. There were 540 stooks, or 45 per acre. "The last of August, and the first two days in September, were a great blessing to the country. From the appearance of change on Saturday the 2d, I persevered cutting till it was nearly dark, and thereby saved a part of a field, very ripe, and so exposed, that the high wind which came on in the night would have greatly injured it. I own I am often surprised with the confidence I see placed in a climate so uncertain as ours. For myself, I disclaim all trust which can be avoided by exertion. "For one fortnight, the experimental cattle all lost weight, and the milch cows gave less milk. I "September 4th.] Cut one field of two acres was compelled to suspend soiling, and turn my from fallow, which had 105 stooks-the wheat cows upon the aftermath, to give the clover time uncommonly good. Much rain in the night, with to get a growth. What was first cut had made partial showers during the day. I discovered that such progress before the wet came on, that it was in many parts of the spring wheat there were a not materially affected, and cut uncommonly well. great number of black her is. These are more |