13. Henry was succeeded by his son, Edward I., who, at the time of his father's death, was absent on the last crusade to the Holy Land. (A. D. 1272.) The active and splendid reign of this prince, who left behind him the character of a great statesman and commander, was mostly occupied with the attempt to unite the whole of Great Britain under one sovereignty. When Llewellyn, prince of Wales, refused, to perform the customary homage to the GATION OF English crown, Edward declared war against him, overran the country, and subdued it, after a brave resistance.

IV. SUBJU

WALES.

(1277-1283.)

14. The remainder of Edward's reign was filled with attempts to subjugate Scotland, to which country the English monarch laid claim as lord paramount, by the rights of fealty and succession. A Scotch king, taken prisoner by Henry II., had been compelled, as the price of his release, to do homage for his crown; and the same had been demanded of later princes, in return for lands which they held in England. By the death of Alexander III. of Scotland, in the year 1283, the crown devolved on his grand daughter the princess Margaret, who was a niece of Edward I. of England. This lady was soon after affianced to Edward's only son, the prince of Wales; and thus the prospect of uniting the crowns of the two kingdoms seemed near at hand, when the frail bond of union was suddenly destroyed by the untimely death of the princess.

15. The two principal Scotch competitors for the crown were now John Baliol and Robert Bruce, who agreed to submit their claims to the decision of Edward. The latter decided in favor of Baliol, on condition of his becoming a vassal of the English king. (A. D. 1292.)

1. Wales, anciently called Cambria, a principality in the west of Great Britain, having on the north and west the Irish Sea, and on the south and south-west Bristol Channel, is about one hundred and fifty miles in length from north to south, and from fifty to eighty in breadth. The Welsh are descendants of the ancient Britons, who, being driven out of England by the Anglo Saxons, took refuge in the mountain fastnesses of Wales, or fled to the continent of Europe, where they gave their name to Brittany. In the ninth century Wales was divided into three sovereignties, North Wales, South Wales, and the intermediate district called Powis,-the reigning princes of which were held together by some loose ties of confederacy. In the year 933 the English king Athelstan compelled the Welsh principalities to become his tributaries; and upon the treaty then concluded with them, founded on the feudal relation of lord and vassal, the Normans based their claim of lordship paramount over all Wales. During the eleventh and twelfth centuries, South Wales was the scene of frequent contests between the Welsh and Normans. When Edward I. claimed feudal homage of Llewellyn, the duty of fealty was acknowledged by the latter; but he was unwilling, by going to London, to place himself in the power of a monarch who had recently violated a solemn treaty with himn; and hence arose a war which resulted in the death of Llewellyn, and the subjugation of his country. A. D. 1282-5. (Map No. XVI.)

The impatient temper of Baliol could not brook the humiliating acts of vassalage required of him; and when war broke out between France and England, he refused military aid to the latter, and concluded a treaty of alliance with the French monarch. (A. D. 1292.) War between England and Scotland followed; and Baliol, after a brief resistance, being defeated in the great battle of Dunbar,' was forced to make submission to Edward in terms of abject supplication. The victor returned to London, carrying with him not only the Scottish crown and sceptre, but also the sacred stone on which the Scottish monarchs were placed when they received the royal inauguration. (A. D. 1296.)

V. SCOTTISH

WARS.

16. Scarcely, however, had Edward crossed the frontiers, when the Scots reasserted their independence, and under the brave Sir William Wallace, a man of obscure birth, but worthy to be ranked among the foremost of patriots, defeated the English at Stirling," and recovered the whole of Scotland as rapidly as it had been lost. Again Edward advanced, at the head of a gallant muster of all the English chivalry, and the Scots were defeated at Falkirk (A. D. 1298.) The adherents of Wallace mutinied against him; and a few years later the hero of Scotland was treacherously betrayed into the hands of Edward, and being condemned for the pretended crime of treason, was infamously executed, to the lasting dishonor of the English king. (A. D. 1305.)

17. The cause of Scottish freedom was revived by Robert Bruce, grandson of the Bruce who had been competitor for the throne against Baliol. In the spring of the year 1306 he was crowned king at Scone by the revolted barons. In the following year, Ed

1. Dunbar is a seaport of Scotland, twenty-seven miles north-east from Edinburgh. The ancient castle of Dunbar, the scene of many warlike exploits, stood on a lofty rock, the base of which was washed by the sea. It was taken by Edward I. in 1296;-four times it received within its walls the unfortunate Queen Mary ;—and it was in the vicinity of Dunbar that Cromwell defeated the Scots under General Leslie, in 1650. (Map No. XVI.)

2. Stirling is a river port and fortress of Scotland, on the Forth, thirty miles north-west from Edinburgh. Its fine old castle is placed on a basaltic rock, rising abruptly three hundred feet from the river's edge. (Map No. XVI.)

3. Falkirk is an ancient town of Scotland, twenty-two miles north-west from Edinburgh, and three miles south of the Frith of Forth. In the valley, a little north of the town, the Scotch, under Wallace, were defeated on the 22d of July, 1298. In this battle fell Sir John Stewart, the commander of the Scottish archers, and Sir John the Grahame, the bosom friend of Wallace. The tomb of Grahame, which the gratitude of his countrymen has thrice renewed, is to be seen in the churchyard of Falkirk. On a moor, half a mile south-west from the town, Charles Stuart, the Pretender, gained a victory over the royal army in 1746. (Map No. XVI. r.) 4. Scone, now a small village of Scotland, is a little above Perth, on the river Tay, eighteen miles west from Dundee, and thirty-five north-west from Edinburgh. It was formerly the resi

ward, assembling a mighty army, to render resistance hopeless, took the field against him, but he died on his march, and the expedition was abandoned by his son and successor, Edward II., in opposition to the dying injunctions of his father. (A. D. 1307.) Still the war continued, and the Scotch were generally successful; but after seven years Edward himself marched against the rebels at the head of more than a hundred thousand men; but being met by Bruce at the head of little more than a third of that number, he experienced a total defeat in the battle of Bannockburn,' which established the independence of Scotland. (A. D. June 24th, 1314.)

18. The northern nations of Europe, during the tenth, eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries, were much less advanced in civilization than those which sprung from the wrecks of the Roman empire; and their obscure annals offer little to our notice but the germs of rude kingdoms in the early stages of formation. In the south-west of Europe, the wars between the Moors and Christians of the Spanish peninsula had already continued during a period of more than five centuries, with ever-varying results; but the overthrow of the Western caliphate of Cordova, in the year 1030, followed by the dismemberment of the Moham' medan empire of Spain, into several independent States, (A. D. 1238,) struck a fatal blow at the Saracen dominion. But, unfortunately, the Christian provinces also were little united, and it was not uncommon for the Christian princes to form alliances with the Moors against one another. The founding of the Moorish kingdom of Granada, in 1238, for a time delayed the fall of the Moslems; but the Christians gradually extended their power, until, near the close of the fifteenth century, Granada yielded to the torrent that had long been setting against it, and with its fall the supremacy of the Christian faith and power was acknowledged throughout the peninsula.a

dence of the Scottish kings-the place of their coronation-and has been the scene of many historical events. The remains of its ancient palace are incorporated with the mansion of the earl of Mansfield. (Map No. XVI.)

1. Bannockburn, the name of which is inseparably connected with one of the most memorable events in British history, is three miles south-west from Stirling. About one mile west from the village James III. was defeated in 1488, by his rebellious subjects and his son James IV., and, after being wounded in the engagement, was assassinated at a mill in the vicinity. Map No. XVI.)

a. See next Section, pp. 317-18. and Notes.

SECTION III.

GENERAL HISTORY DURING THE FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES.

1. ENGLAND AND FRANCE DURING THE FOURTEENTH AND
FIFTEENTH CENTURIES.

ANALYSIS. 1. Continuation of the histories of France and England.-2. Defeat of Edward II. in the battle of Bannockburn. Edward offends the barons. [Gascony.] The Great Charter confirmed, and annual parliaments ordained.-3. Rebellion of the barons, and death of Edward. Reign of Edward III. Invasion of Scotland. [Halidon Hill.]

FRENCH AND English wars.-4. Edward disputes the succession to the throne of France. Invasion of France, and battle of Cressy. [Cressy.] Defeat of the Scots, and capture of Calais. [Durham. Calais.]-5. Renewal of the war with France, and victory of Poictiers. (1356.) Anarchy in France. Treaty of Bretigny. The conquered territory. [Bretigny. Aquitaine. Bordeaux.]-6. Renewal of the war with France in 1368. Relative condition of the two powers. The French recover their provinces. [Bayonne. Brest, and Cherbourg.]-7. Death of Edward III. of England, and Charles V. of France. The distractions that followed in both kingdoms. [Orleans. Lancaster. Gloucester.] Wat Tyler's insurrection. [Blackheath.]-8. Character of Richard II. He is deposed, and succeeded by Henry IV. (1399.) The legal claimant. Origin of the contentions between the houses of York and Lancaster.-9. Insurrection against Henry. [Shrewsbury.]-10. Accession of Henry V., and happy change in his character. He invades France, and defeats the French in the battle of Agincourt.-11. Civil war in France, and return of Henry. The treaty with the Burgundian faction. Opposition of the Orleans party. [The States General. The dauphin.]-12. The infant king of the English, Henry VI, and the French king Charles VII. Joan of Arc. Her declared mission.-13. Successes of the French, and fate of Joan.-14. The English gradually lose all their continental possessions, except Calais. Tranquillity in France.

15. Unpopularity of the reigning English family. Popular insurrection. Beginning of the WARS OF THE Two ROSES. [St. Albans.]-16. Sanguinary character of the strife. First period of the war closes with the accession of Edward IV., of the house of York.-17. The French king. The reign of Edward IV. The earl of Warwick. Overthrow of the Lancastrians. The fate of Margaret, her son, and the late king Henry IV. [Warwick. Tewkesbury.]—18. The cotemporary reign of Louis XI. of France. The relations of Edward and Louis.-19. Fate of Edward V., and accession of Richard III. Defeat and death of Richard, and end of the "Wars of the Two Roses." [Richmond. Bosworth.]

20. REIGN OF HENRY VII. The impostors Simnel and Warbeck. [Dublin.]-21. Treaties with France and Scotland. The Scottish marriage.-22. Why the reign of Henry VII. is an important epoch in English history.

II. OTHER NATIONS AT THE CLOSE OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.

1. DENMARK, SWEDEN AND NORWAY. Union of Calmar. [Calmar.]

2. The RusSIAN EMPIRE. Its early history. [Dnieper. Novogorod.] Divisions of the kingdom in the eleventh century.-3. Tartar invasions. The reign of John III. duke of Moscow. Russia at the end of the fifteenth century.-4. Founding of the OTTOMAN EMPIRE, on the ruins of the Eastern or Greek empire. [Emir.] The Turkish empire at the close of the fourteenth century. The sultan Bajazet overthrown by Tamerlane.-5. The TARTAR EMPIRE OF TAMERLANE. Defeat of the Turks. Turks and Christians unite against the Tartars. Death of Tamerlane. [Samarcand. Angora.]-6. Taking of Constantinople by the Turks, and extinction of the Eastern empire.

7. POLAND. Commencement and early history of Poland. Extent of the kingdom at the close of the fifteenth century. [Poland. Lithuania. Teutonic knights. Moldavia.]-8. The GERMAN EMPIRE at the close of the fifteenth century. Elective monarchs.-9. Causes that render the history of Germany exceedingly complicated. The three powerful States of Germany about the middle of the fourteenth century. [Luxemburg. Bohemia. Moravia Silesia.

Lusatia. Brandenburg. Holland. Tyrol. Austria.]-10. Austrian princes of Germany. Important changes made during the reign of Maximilian. [Worms.]-11. SWITZERLAND revolts from Austria. Long-continued wars. Switzerland independent at the close of the fifteenth century. [Rutuli. William Tell. Morgarten. Sempach.]-12. ITALIAN HISTORY during the central period of the Middle Ages. The Italian republics. [Genoa.] Duchy of Milan.-13. The Florentines. Contests between the Genoese and Venetians. [Levant.] Genoa at the close of the fifteenth century.-14. History of Venice. Her power at the end of the fifteenth century. [Morea.] The popes, and kings of Naples. Interference of foreign powers.-15. SPAIN. Union of the most powerful Christian States. Overthrow of the Saracen dominions in Spain. [Navarre. Aragon. Castile. Leon. Granada.]-16. History of PORTUGAL. [Farther account of Portugal.]

III. DISCOVERIES.

1. Navigation, and geographical knowledge, during the Dark Ages. Revival of commerce. [Pisa.] Discovery of the magnetic needle. The art of printing. Discovery of the Canaries. Portuguese discoveries. [Canáries. Cape de Verd and Azore islands.]-2. Views and objects of Prince Henry. His death. Fame of the discoveries patronized by him. Christopher Columbus. The bold project conceived by him. [Lisbon. Ireland. Guinea.]-3. The trials of Columbus. His final triumph, in the discovery of America. Vasco de Gama. Closing

remarks.

I. ENGLAND AND FRANCE DURING THE FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES.-1. France and England occupy the most prominent place in the history of European nations during the closing period of the Middle Ages; and as their annals, during most of this period, are so intimately connected that the history of one nation is in great part the history of both, the unity of the subject will best be preserved, and repetition avoided, by treating both in connection.

2. The reign of Edward II. of England, whose defeat by the Scots in the famous battle of Bannockburn has already been mentioned, although inglorious to himself, and disastrous to the British arms, was not, on the whole, unfavorable to the progress of constitutional liberty. The unbounded favoritism of Edward to Gaveston, a handsome youth of Gascony,' whom the king elevated in wealth and dignities above all the nobles in England, roused the resentment of the barons; and the result was the banishment of the favorite, and a reformation of abuses in full parliament. (A. D. 1313.) The Great Charter, so often violated, was again confirmed; and the im portant provision was added, that there should be an annual assem bling of parliament, for protection of the people, when "aggrieved by the king's ministers against right."

3. But other favorities supplied the place of Gaveston: the nobles rebelled against their sovereign: his faithless queen Isabella, sister of the king of France, took part with the malcontents, and

1. Gascony, before the French Revolution, was a province of France, situated between the Garonne, the sea, and the Pyrenees. The Gascons are a people of much spirit; but their exaggeration in describing their exploits has made the term gasconade proverbial. (Map No. XIII.)