complaints of the Piedmontese.-2. Insurrection in Piedmont," March 1821. Success of the in surgents, and abdication of the king. Austrian interference suppresses the Revolution.

V. THE GREEK REVOLUTION. 1. History of Greece from 1481 to 1821. Proclamation of Grecian independence in 1821. Suppression of the Revolution in Northern Greece. [Islamism. Trieste.]-2. Beginning and spread of the Revolution in the Morea. Proclamation of the Messenian senate. [Kalamatia.] Aid extended to the Greeks.-3. Rage, and cruelties, of the Turks. Effects produced.-4. Events on the Asiatic coast, in Candia, Cypress, Rhodes, &c. Successes and retaliatory measures of the Greeks. [Monembasia. Navarino. Tripolitza.]—5, Defeat of the Turks at Thermopylæ. The peninsula of Cassandra laid waste by them. [Cas sandra.] The Turks driven from the country to the cities.

[1822.]-6. Acts of the Greek congress. [Epidaurus.] Dissensions and difficulties among the Greeks.-7. Principal military events of 1822. [Scio. Napoli di Romania.]—8. Destruction of Scio. Events in Southern Macedonia. [Salonica.]-8. Events in Western Greece. The Greek fire-ships. [Tenedos.] Great loss of Turkish vessels. Taking of Napoli di Romania. [1823.]-9. Events of the war during the year 1823. [Missolonghi.] The poet Lord Byron. [1824.]-10. The Turks besiege Negropont, subdue Candia, reduce Ipsara, and attack Samos. The Egyptian fleet. [1825-6.]-11. Successes of Ibrahim Pacha in the Morea. Siege and fall of Missolonghi [Salona.] Fate of the inhabitants of Missolonghi.-12. Danger apprehended from the successes of Ibrahim Pacha, and treaty of London, July 1827.-13. Allied squadron sent to the archipelago. Battle of Navarino. Rage of the Porte.-14. French and English army sent to the Morea, 1828. War between Russia and Turkey. [Pruth.] Convention with Ibrahim Pacha. Successes of the Greeks. Retaliatory measures of the sultan.-15. Protocol of the allies, Jan. 1827. [Cyclades.] Successes of the Russians, and peace of Adrianople. [Balkan Mts.]-16. Unsettled condition of the country and its subsequent history.

VI. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1830. 1. Beginning of the reign of Charles X. Principles of his government and opposition of the people. The Polignac ministry, 1829.-2. The royal speech at the opening of the Chambers in 1830. Effects. Reply of the Chambers. Dissolution of the Chambers.-3. War with Algiers.-4. Continued excitement in France. Result of the elections. Course pursued by the ministry. The three ordinances of July 26th. Accompanying report of the ministers.-5. The course pursued by the public journals. Excitement throughout Paris. Apathy of the king and ministers.-6. Events of the 27th. Marmont. Arming of the people.-7. On the 28th the riot assumes the aspect of a Revolution. The con test during the day. Its results.-8. Renewal of the contest on the third day. Defection of the troops of the line, and success of the revolution. Installation of a provisional government. Louis Phillippe elected king.-9. Alarm of the continental sovereigns. The emperor of Russia. Charles X. and his ministers.

VII. BELGIUM. 1. Effects of the French Revolution upon Europe. Revolution in Belgium. -2. Vain attempts at reconciliation. Declaration of Belgian independence. Protocol of the five great European powers. Selection of a king. [Saxe-Coburg, Gotha.] Siege and surrender of Antwerp. Prosperity of Belgium.

VIII. POLISH REVOLUTION. 1. Disposition made of Poland by the congress of Vienna. Alexander's arbitrary government of Poland.-2. The government of Poland under the emperor Nicholas. Character of Constantine. Effect of his barbarities. Secret societies. [Volbynia.] -3. Revolutionary outbreak at Warsaw, Nov. 1830. A general rising in Warsaw. The provisional government.-4. Fruitless attempts to negotiate. Russian and Polish forces. Opening events of the war.-5. Night attacks and rout of the Russians. [Bug River.] Conduct of Prussia and Austria.-6. Battle of Ostrolenka. [Minsk. Ostrolenka.] Death of Diebitsch and Constantine. Conspiracy at Warsaw.-7. Dissensions among the Poles. Fall of Warsaw and end of the war. Fate of the Polish generals, soldiers, and nobility. Result.

III. ENGLISH REFORMS. FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1848. REVOLUTIONS IN THE GERMAN STATES, PRUSSIA, AND AUSTRIA. REVOLUTIONS IN ITALY. HUNGARIAN WAR. USURPATION OF LOUIS NAPOLEON.

I. ENGLISH REFORMS. 1. England from 1820 to 1830. Reforms obtained in 1828 and 1829. Resignation of the Wellington ministry, 1830. The whig ministry of Earl Grey. Lord Russell's Reform bill :-lost in the Commons.-2. Dissolution of Parliament. Result of the new elections. Fecond defeat of the Reform bill, 1831. Poplar resentment, and riots. [Derby. Bristol.)-3

Third defeat of the Reform bill, 1832. Resignation of ministers. Causes of their reinstatement. Final passage of the Reform bill.-4. Important effects of this measure. More intimate union with France. Prosperity of England under the change.-5. Accession of Victoria to the throne, 1837; and her marriage to Prince Albert, 1840.

II. FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1848. 1. Most important events of the reign of Louis Phillippe. -2. Lafayette's instrumentality in his election. Anomalous and difficult position of Louis Phillippe. The temporary success of his government.-3. Discontent of the middle and lower classes.-4. The political reform banquets of 1847-8. The contemplated banquet for the 22d of Feb., 1848,-forbidden by the government. Measures taken by the opposition deputies.-5. Announcement of the postponement of the banquet. Popular assemblage dispersed. Disturbances in the evening of the 22d.-6. Renewed disturbances on the morning of the 23d. Demands of the National Guards acceded to. The people fired upon in the evening.-7. A Thiers' ministry organized. Proclamation on the morning of the 24th, and withdrawal of the troops. Disarming of the troops, abdication of the king, pillage of the palace, and flight of the king and ministers.-8. Meeting of the Chamber of Deputies. Adoption of a Republic. -9. M. Lamartine. General adhesion to the new government.-10. The Moderate and the Red Republicans. Their respective principles. Demands upon the government.-11. Animosities of the two sections of the Republican party. Popular demonstrations. The April elections. The executive committee.-12. Insurrection of the 15th of May. Its suppression. -13. Precautionary measures of the government. Insurrection of June-suppressed after a bloody contest.-14. Cavaignac chief executive. Treatment of the insurgent prisoners. Adoption, and character of, the new constitution.

III. REVOLUTIONS IN THE GERMAN STATES, PRUSSIA, AND AUSTRIA. 1. Effects of the recent French Revolution upon the German States. Events in Baden.-2. Events at Cologne, Munich, and Hesse-Cassel. [Hanau. Hesse-Cassel.]-3. Convention at Heidelberg. [Heidelberg.] Action of the Frankfort diet. Course of Frederick William of Prussia. Saxony and Hanover. Revolt of Sleswick and Holstein.

4. Excitement in Vienna, caused by the Revolution in Paris. [Galicia. Metternich.]-5. Opening of the diet of Lower Austria. Commotions and bloodshed.-6. Concessions of the government, and triumph of the people.-7. Efforts of government to fulfil its promises. Dif ficulties that intervened. Rule of the mob. Flight, and return, of the emperor. [Inspruck.] 8. Demands of the Bohemians. A Slavic Congress. Bombardment of Prague, and termination of the Bohemian Revolution.-9. Hungary at this period. Revolt of the Croats, who are supported by Austria. [Hungary. Croatia.] Second Revolution in Vienna. Flight of the em peror. [Olmutz.] Siege and surrender of Vienna.-10. The Hungarian army during the siege. -11. Character of the second Revolution in Vienna. Reaction in the popular mind, and triumph of despotism.

IV. REVOLUTIONS IN ITALY. 1. Austrian influence and interference in Italian affairs since the fall of Napoleon. [Modena. Parma. Papal-States.]-2. Election of Pope Pius IX, in 1846. His character and acts. Austria interferes. [Ferrara.] A general rising against Austria. Withdrawal of Austrian troops. [Bologna. Lucca.]-3. Austrian force in Lombardy. General insurrection throughout Austrian Italy. Charles Albert of Sardinia espouses the cause of Italian nationality. Final triumph of the Austrians under Radetsky. An armistice.4. Renewal of the war-second triumph of Radetsky, and abdication of Charles Albert.-5. Blockade and fall of Venice.-6. Revolution in Naples. [Kingdom of Naples.] War with, and final reduction of, the Sicilians. [Palermo.]-7. Difficulties of the pope.-8. His growing unpopularity and flight. [Gaeta.] The Roman Republic instituted.-9. The pope's appeal for aid-how responded to.-10. Reduction of Rome by the French army. Return of the pope. The change in him and his people.

V. HUNGARIAN WAR. 1. Immediate cause of the second Revolution in Vienna. Hungarian and Croatian war.-2. Historical account of the Magyars. [Theiss.] Character of the Hungarian government.-3. Repeated acknowledgments of its independence.-4. Ferdinand the Fifth. His means of influence,—and Austrian control over the government of the Hungarians. The two parties in Hungary.-5. Concessions to Hungary in March, 1848. [Pesth.]—6. Anarchy and misrule in Hungary.-7. A more alarming danger to Hungary. Her population. Revolt of Croatia. [Slavonians.] The Serbian revolt. [Serbs.] Actual beginning of the war on the part of Hungary. [Carlowitz. Peterwardein. The Banat.] Austria openly supports the Croatian rebellion.-8. Action of the Hungarian Diet. Defeat of Jellachich near Pesth.-9.

Character, and situation, of Ferdinand, who abdicates the throne. The Hungarian Diet refuses to acknowledge his successor. Failure of the attempt at negotiations.-10. Defection of several of the Hungarian leaders,--but general adherence to Kossuth and the country. Want of armsbut partially supplied. Hungarian force.-11. Austrian plan of invasion. Austrians enter Pesth, Jan. 1849, and the government retires to Debreczin. Concentration of the Hungarian forces. General Bem. [Debreczin. Comorn. Eperies. Bukowina.]-12. Loss of Esseck. Bem is at first repulsed. His final successes. [Esseck. Wallachs. Hermanstadt. Cronstadt. Temeswar.]-13. Dembinski. Operations in the valley of the Theiss. [Szegedin. Maros. Kapolna, &c.] Battles of Kapolna.-14. Gorgey. His victories over the Austrians. [Tapiobieske. Godollo. Waitzen. Nagy Sarlo.] Siege of Buda. [Buda.]-15. Constitution for the Austrian empire. Declaration of Hungarian independence. Kossuth governor of Hungary.—16, Aus trian and Russian preparations for a second campaign. The Hungarian forces.-17. Invasion of Hungary in June. [Presburg. Bartfeld.]-18. Gradual concentration of the enemies of Hungary. [Hegyes.] Barbarities of Haynau.-19. Gorgey's retreat to Arad. [Onod. Tokay, Arad.] Want of concert among the Hungarian generals.-20. Retreat of Dembinski. Defeat at Temeswar, and breaking up of the southern Hungarian army. Gorgey's failure to support Dembinski. His suspected fidelity. Supreme power conferred upon him.-21. Gorgey's treason, and surrender of his army, Aug. 13th, 1849.-22. Previous successes of the Hungarians in the vicinity of Comorn. [Raab.] Surrender of Comorn, Sept. 29th.-23. Fate of Kossuth, Bem, Dembinski, &c. [Widdin.-24. The closing tragedy of the Hungarian war. Fate of the inferior officers, Hungarian soldiers, &c.

VI. USURPATION OF LOUIS NAPOLEON. 1. Election of a chief magistrate in France in 1848. The six candidates. Cavaignac, and Louis Napoleon. Election of the latter. Inauguration and oath of office.-2. History of Louis Napoleon down to the period of his election. [Fortress of Ham.]-3. His declaration of principles. Jealousy of him. Parties in the Assembly.—4 Want of confidence between the President and Assembly. Acts of the Assembly.-5. Proposed revision of the constitution.-6. President's message of November 1851. Increasing ani mosity of the Assembly against the President.-7. An approaching crisis,—how anticipated by Louis Napoleon. Circumstances of the coup d'etat of December 2d.-8. Meeting, and arrest, of members of the Assembly. The public press. Decree for an election. Insurrection of De cember 4th, suppressed by the military.-9. Result of the elections of December. The new constitution. Louis Napoleon President for ten years. Assumes the title of emperor.

I. THE PERIOD OF PEACE: 1815-1820.

1. TREATIES OF 1815.

1. On the day of the signing of the treaty of Paris, another was concluded between Russia, Prussia, Austria, and England, designed as a measure of security for the allied powers, and declaring that Napoleon Bonaparte and his Jamily should be forever excluded from the throne of France. On the same day a third treaty, of notorious celebrity, called "The Holy Alliance," was subscribed by the emperors of Russia and Austria, and the king of Prussia, who bound themselves, "in conformity with the principles of Holy Scripture,-to lend each other every aid, assistance, and succor, on every occasion." This treaty was ere long acceded to by nearly all the continental powers as parties to the compact, although the ruling prince of England declined signing it, on the ground that the English constitution prevented him from becoming a party to any convention that was not countersigned by a responsible minister.

2. The terms of the Holy Alliance were drawn by the young Russian emperor Alexander, whose enthusiastic benevolence prompted him to devise a plan of a common international law that should substitute the peaceful reign of the Gospel in place of the rude empire of the sword. But the law of the Holy Alliance, although beneficent in its origin, was to be interpreted by absolute monarchs: as it was evident that its only active principle would be the maintenance of despotic power, under the mask of piety and religion, it was justly regarded with dread and jealousy by the liberal party throughout Europe, and was in reality made a convenient pretext for enforcing the doctrine of passive obedience, and resisting all efforts for the establishment of constitutional freedom.

3. The treaties of 1815 both closed the ascendency of imperial France in Europe, and terminated, for a time at least, the revolutionary movements in the civilized world. Twenty-five years of war had exhausted the treasures of Europe, and covered her soil with mourn. ing, and never before had the sweets of repose been so eagerly cov. eted by rulers and people. But although the nations had tired of the mingled horrors and glories of military strife, the excitement occasioned by the revolutionary wars continued, and, for want of other. channels of action, seized hold of the social passions of the masses: military gave place to democratic ambition-the old ante-revolution. ary contest between despotism and democracy revived, to be followed by other revolutions still, until one or the other principle shall triumph-until, in the language of Napoleon, Europe shall become either Cossack or Republican.

IL

ENGLAND.

4. In England, the social contest, wearing a milder aspect than on the continent, displayed itself in the legal strife for government relief and parliamentary reforms. During a long and expensive war, England had enjoyed extraordinary domestic prosperity: since the year 1792 her population had increased more than four millions, notwithstanding the absorp tion of five hundred thousand men in the army and navy: the exports, imports, and tonnage, of the kingdom, had more than doubled since the war began; and although the public debt had grown to an enormous amount, agriculture, commerce, and manufactures, had gone on increasing, during the whole struggle, in an unparalleled ratio. 5. It was confidently anticipated, not only by the ardent and enthusiastic, but also by the prudent and sagacious, that when the enormous expenses of the war establishment should be removed, and

peace had thrown open the ports of all Europe to the enterprise of British merchants, the tide of national prosperity would rise still higher and higher; but never were hopes more cruelly disappointed. Exports, to an enormous amount, being suddenly thrown into countries impoverished by war, glutted the foreign market; and the consignments, in most instances, were sold for little more than half their original cost-spreading ruin throughout the commercial interests. Moreover, the opening of the European and American ports for the the supplies of grain, glutted the home market of England; and prices of every species of agricultural produce soon fell to two-thirds of what they had been during the closing scenes of the war: a season of unusual scarcity, in 1816, threatening a famine, increased the general distress, which, like a pall of gloom, enshrouded the whole kingdom.

6. Other causes, in addition to those originating in the mere transition from a state of war to one of peace, doubtless contributed to the general revulsion in business, among which may be mentioned, as the most prominent, the greatly diminished supply of the precious metals from South America, owing to the unsettled state of that country then occupied with revolutionary wars, and the rapid contraction of the paper currency of Great Britain, in anticipation of a speedy return to specie payments. But the English Radical or Republican party attributed the difficulties to excessive taxation and the measures of a corrupt government; and a vehement outcry was raised for parliamentary reform, and retrenchment in all branches of public expenditure.

7. The English government, wiser than the continental powers, has ever had the prudence to make seasonable concessions to reasonable popular demands, before the spark of discontent has been blown into the blaze of revolution; and now, after a spirited contest, a heavy property tax, that had been patiently submitted to as a necessary war measure, was repealed, amid the universal transports of the people the remission of other taxes followed, and, in one year, a reduction of thirty-five million pounds sterling was made from the national expenditure, although strongly opposed by the ministry. Still the distress continued; the popular feeling against the government increased; numerous secret political societies were organized among the disaffected; and early in the following year (1817) a com

a. From 1815 to 1816 the amount of gold and silver coin produced from the mines of South America fell from about seven million pounds sterling to five and a half million pounds.