of z in azure and that of s in pleasure are identical. It might properly be expressed by zh, or a new character. This sound is related to sh in shine, as th in then is related to th in thin.

From the first to the twelfth, inclusive, the sounds are represented by the characters a, e, i, o, u. Those represented by a, o, and u are called broad or strong vowels; those represented by e and are called small or weak vowels.

COGNATE CONSONANT ELEMENTS.

§ 120. From the twenty-first to the thirty-fourth inclusive, the consonant sounds allied in pronunciation, or cognate, are arranged in pairs. In each pair, the sound of the even number has vocality, being produced by the voice, and the sound of the odd number has only an aspiration, or a whisper, being produced by the breath. Thus, if the sound of p in the first pair be isolated from its vowel, it will be only that of a whisper; but if the allied sound of b be uttered, it will be not a whisper, but the natural tone of the voice.

As already mentioned, the sounds in the series p are indicated by the terms surd, aspirate, or sharp; and the sounds in the series b are indicated by the terms sonant, vocal, or flat.

The Tahitians confound the cognate elements represented by d and t, and also those represented by b and p.

THE

SUMMATION OF SURD AND SONANT

ELEMENTS.

§ 121. The Vowel sounds, the Nasal sounds, and the Liquid sounds, are sonant; one half of the remaining sounds are sonant, and the other half and the sound of the letter h are surd. See § 118.

THE SUMMATION OF EXPLOSIVE AND CONTINUOUS

ELEMENTS.

§ 122. The Vowel sounds, the Nasal sounds, the Liquid sounds, the sounds of f, v, s, sh, z, zh, of th in thin, of th in thine, are continuous. The sounds of b, of p, t, d, k, g, and h, are explosive.

THE ORGANIC PRODUCTION

OF THE PHONETIC ELE

MENTS.

§ 123. 1. The first, that of a in father, closes the mouth a little more than the fourth (see below), and, raising the lower jaw, widening the tongue, and advancing it a little nearer to the lips, its sound is less hollow and deep. The second, that of a in fat, being dependent, can not be easily exhibited in its organic production. For the meaning of the word dependent, see § 156. The third, that of a in fate, is formed higher in the mouth than the first, while the tongue widens itself to the cheeks, and raises itself, and thus a less hollow sound is produced than either of the other two. The fourth, that of a in fall, is produced by forcibly driving out the breath, modified in its passage by the tongue's contracting itself to the root, the mouth being open in nearly a circular form.

2. The fifth, that of e in mete, is organically produced by dilating the tongue a little more than in the case of the third, and advancing it nearer to the palate and the lips. In the formation of this sound, the tongue is as near to the palate as possible without touching it.

3. The sixth, that of e in met, is dependent, and can not easily be exhibited in its organic production. The seventh, that of i in fit, is also dependent.

4. The eighth, that of o in note, is formed by nearly the same position of the organ as that of a in fall. But the tongue is a little more advanced into the middle of the mouth, the lips are protruded, and form a round aperture like that of the letter, and the voice is not so deep in the mouth as when the fourth sound of a is produced, but advances into the hollow of the mouth. The ninth, that of o in not is dependent.

5. The tenth, that of u in bull, and the eleventh, that of oo in pool, resemble each other in their organic formation, the tenth being formed lower in the mouth than the eleventh. The eleventh is formed by protruding the lips a little more than o in note, forming a smaller opening, and instead of swelling the voice in the middle of the mouth, bringing it as far forward as possible to the lips. The twelfth, that of u in but, is dependent, and can not easily be exhibited in its organic production.

6. The thirteenth, that of w in wet, is formed much like the eleventh. The fourteenth, that of y in yet, is formed much like the fifth. The fifteenth, h, is simply a breathing.

7. The sixteenth, that of ng in king, is formed like that of the

twenty-ninth, with this difference, that in the case of the sixteenth the voice passes mostly through the nose.

8. The seventeenth, that of m in man, is formed by closing the lips till the breath is collected, and letting the voice issue by the nose. 9. The eighteenth, that of n in not, is formed by pressing the tip of the tongue to the gums of the upper teeth, and breathing through the nose with the mouth open.

10. The nineteenth, that of l in let, is formed by placing the organs in nearly the same position as in the case of the eighteenth, but the tip of the tongue is drawn a little more forward to the teeth, while the breath issues from the mouth.

11. The twentieth, that of r in run, is formed by placing the tongue at such a distance from the palate as to suffer it to jar against it, the breath being propelled from the throat to the mouth.

12. The twenty-first, that of p in pate, and the twenty-second, that of b in bat, are each of them formed by closing the lips until the breath is collected, with this difference, that in the case of the latter the lower organs of the mouth are brought into action, so that the natural tone of the voice is produced, and not merely a whisper, as in the case of the twenty-first.

13. The twenty-third, that of f in fan, and the twenty-fourth, that of v in van, are each of them formed by pressing the upper teeth upon the under lip, with this difference, that the lower or vocal organs of the mouth are brought into action in the case of the latter.

14. The twenty-fifth, that of th in thin, and the twenty-sixth, that of th in thine, are each of them formed by protruding the tongue and pressing it against the upper teeth, with this difference, that in the case of the latter the vocal or lower organs are brought into play.

15. The twenty-seventh, that of t in tin, and the twenty-eighth, that of i in din, are each of them formed by pressing the tip of the tongue to the gums of the upper teeth as the breath issues from the mouth, with this difference, that in the case of the latter the lower organs of the mouth are brought into action.

16. The twenty-ninth, that of k in kin, and the thirtieth, that of g in gun, are each of them formed by pressing the middle of the tongue to the roof of the mouth, near the throat, at the moment of their formation, with this difference, that in the case of the latter the lower organs are brought into action in order to produce vocality in the sound.

17. The thirty-first, that of s in sir, and the thirty-second, that of z in zed, are each of them formed by placing the tongue in the same position as in the case of t and d, but not so close to the gums. A

for the

space is thus left between the tongue and the palate and gums breath to issue from between the teeth and produce a hissing sound, which, in the case of the latter, has vocality, from the use of the of the mouth.

lower organs

18. The thirty-third, that of sh in shine, and thirty-fourth, that of z in azure, are each of them formed in the same manner as that of s and z, though in the case of the two former the tongue is rather farther off from the palate and the gums, so that there is more room for the passage of the breath. In the case of the z in azure, the sound is formed by the lower organs of the mouth, and has vocality.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE

ELEMENTARY CONSONAN T

AL SOUNDS ACCORDING TO THEIR ORGANIC FORM

ATION.

z,

§ 124. I. Labials, that of p, b, f, v. II. Dentals, that of t, d, s, 2, th, sh, that of z in azure. III. Gutturals, that of k, g, l, r. These are also called palatals. IV. Nasals, m, n, ng. The labial sound of b, the dental of d, the guttural of g, have a nasal quality. The sounds indicated by t, th, d, and n, have also been called cerebrals, as they seem to proceed from the head. The sound of m is labial

§ 125. I. Compound Sounds, formed by means of two vowel sounds, are called DIPHTHONGS; as that of ou in house, oi in voice, u in muse, i in pine.

1. The nature of the compound ou is disguised by the spelling. It consists of the sounds of a in father, and of oo, or of the w in will, rapidly pronounced.

2. The sound of the compound oi is the sound of o modified, plus the sound of y modified.

3. The sound of u in muse, and of ew in new, is that of i in pit and of oo, or of w in will.

4. The sound of i in pine, like that of u in muse, is disguised by the spelling. As it is represented by means of the letter i, the erroneous notion prevails of its being a simple single elementary sound; and also of its being the sound of i in pit, lengthened in the pronunciation. The real elements of the sound in question are generally considered to be the a in fat and the y in yet, rapidly pronounced. The word diphthong is from the Greek dís, double, and płóyyos, a voice. It is immediately related to the spoken language, not the written.

Some of the vowel sounds do not readily combine, as those of e and a in beat. Only one of the elements is sounded. When two vowel letters are thus brought together in a written word, and the sounds which they represent will not coalesce, they are called a DI

GRAPH.

II. Compound Sounds formed by means of three vowel sounds are called TRIPHTHONGS; as in buoy.

When three vowel letters are brought together in a syllable, and the sounds which they represent will not coalesce, they are called a TRIGRAPH.

III. Compound Consonant Sounds are represented by ch in chest, and by j in jest. Ch is=t+sh; j is=d+zh. These are compound Sibilants, that of ch being surd, and that of j being sonant.

The analysis of the sounds in the English language presented in the preceding statements are sufficiently exact for the purpose in hand. Those who wish to pursue it further can consult Dr. RUSH's admirable work, "The Philosophy of the Human Voice." Upon the same grounds upon which orthoepists consider i in fine and u in rude as diphthongal, he contends that several of the vowels are diphthongal; as, for instance, that a in ale, which, upon being pro longed, he asserts, resolves itself into the two sounds of a and e.

RELATIONSHIP

OF

CERTAIN

CONSONANTAL

SOUNDS.

§ 126. 1. Let the sign b represent the single simple sound of th in thin. And, 2. Let the sign represent the single simple sound. of th in thine. And, 3. Let the sign σ (Greek Eiyua) represent the simple single sound of sh in shine. And, 4. Let the sign (Greek Znτa) represent the simple single sound of z in azure (French j). And, 5. Let the simple sign x (Greek Kannа) and the sign y (Greek Táppa) represent two peculiar sounds in the Laplandic, and possibly in some other languages, different from any in English, Ger man, French. Then we have the following relationship: