Gl denotes smoothness or silent motion; as, English glib, glide.

Gn, jn, or kn denotes a sudden breaking off; as, Sanscrit janus, Greek yovú, Latin genu, German knie, English knee; Latin janua, a break in a wall.

Gr. See the force of the letter r, above.

Kn. See gn, above.

Shw and sw denote gentle motion (compare the force of the letter w, above); as, German schwellen, schwimmen, schwingen; English sway, swagger, sweep, swerve, swell, swine, swing.

sly.

Sl denotes smoothness or silent motion; as, slide, slip, slime, sleight,

Sn denotes ideas relating to the nose (compare the force of the letter n, above); as, English snarl, sneer, sneeze, snicker, snivel, snore, snort, snout, snuff, snuffle.

Spr denotes a spreading out; as, English spread, sprain, sprawl, spring, sprinkle.

St denotes firmness or stability; as, English stable, staff, stake, stalk, stall, stand, stay, steady, stem, stick, stiff, stock, stout, stub, stubble, stubborn, stump, sturdy.

Str seems to denote exertion; as, English strain, strenuous, stress, strike (whence stroke, streak), strip (whence strap, stripe), strive (whence strife), string, strong (whence strength), strict, strait, straight, stretch, struggle.

Thr denotes violent motion; as, English throw, thrust, throng, throb. Tw is found in a large class of English words connected with the number two.

Wr evidently denotes distorted motion (compare the force of the letter r, above); as, English wrap, wreck (whence wrack), wrest (whence wrist, wrestle), wrig (whence wriggle), wring (whence wrong, wrangle, wrench), wrinkle, writhe (whence wreath, writhle, wry)...

We forbear to add more, hoping that what we have said will be sufficient to support our position, that language is not entirely arbitrary or conventional, but, on the contrary, articulate sounds have a natural adaptedness to express specific ideas.

CHAPTER VIII.

ORTHOEPY.

$168. ORTHOEPY is a word derived from the Greek opods, right, and eños, a word, and signifies the correct utterance of words. It bears the same relation to the ear which orthography does to the eye. It deals in audible signs of what is passing in the mind of the speaker, as the latter does in visible signs of what has been uttered by the voice. The two influence each other. A vicious orthography, says Quintilian, must bring on a vicious pronunciation. Quod male scribitur, male etiam dici necesse est. In turn, the visible form of language naturally accommodates to the pronunciation, whether right or wrong.

ORTHOEPY IN RESPECT TO THE PHONETIC ELE

MENTS.

$169. What the Phonetic Elements are, and how many, wo have already seen in previous chapters. Now a correct utterance of these elements separately and in combination is, in respect to them, Orthoepy. This is only an exhibition of the elements which a phonetic analysis of the language has developed, and is called Articulation.

1. One error on this point in pronouncing a word is the omission of an element which belongs to it, as when one says caad for card, pr-vail for pr-evail. In the first case, the twentieth, in the second, the fifth element, is omitted. See table, p. 145. 2. A second error is the introduction of an element not belonging to the word, as drownded for drowned, ceow for cow. In the first case, the twenty-eighth tabular element is introduced; in the second, the fifth.

3. A third error is the substitution of one element for another, as think-in for think-ing, srinks for shrinks. In the first case, the eighteenth element is substituted for the sixteenth; in the second, the thirty-first is substituted for the thirty-third.

4. A fourth error is the substitution of an obscure sound for

a distinct element; as when one says what approaches up-pinion for o-pinion, or what approaches par-tic-e-lar for par-ticu-lar. In the first case, an obscure sound is substituted for the eighth element; in the second, an obscure sound is substituted for the thirty-sixth.

ORTHOEPY IN RESPECT TO SYLLABICATION.

§ 170. What are the principles of syllabication we have seen in a previous chapter. Now an utterance of a syllable, or the syllables of a word in accordance with these principles, is, in respect to them, Orthoepy.

1. One error in respect to syllabication is the taking of an element from the syllable of a word where it belongs, and placing it in the syllable of another word; as to say "a nice house" instead of "an ice house;" "that lasts till night" for "that last still night."

2. A second error is the taking of an element from the syllable of a word where it belongs, and placing it in another syllable of the same word; as when one says pre-face for pref-ace.

3. A third error is the suppressing of a syllable which belongs to a word; as to pronounce the adjective learned in one syllable instead of learn-ed.

4. A fourth error in syllabication is the adding of a syllable to a word which does not belong to it; as to pronounce parliument in four syllables, as parl-i-a-ment, instead of in three syllables, parl-e-ment.

ORTHOEPY

IN RESPECT TO ACCENT.

§ 171. What are the principles of English Accent we have seen in a previous chapter. A correct application of those principles to practice in the utterance of words and syllables, is, in respect to them, Orthoepy.

1. One error in accentuation is to accent a verb like a noun merely because they are spelled alike; as to pronounce to survey' like a survey, to attrib'ute like an attribute. See § 147.

2. A second error is to overlook the derivation of words, and to accentuate from an ancient or a foreign language, as if it were derived from the Anglo-Saxon; as to place the accent on dissyllables like balloon', romance', on the first syllable, instead of on the last syllable, where it belongs.

ORTHOEPY IN RESPECT TO QUANTITY.

§ 172. What are the principles of English Quantity we have seen in a previous chapter. A correct application of these principles in the utterance of words and syllables is a part of orthoepy. To say hay'-bit and soob'-ject instead of hab-it and subject is to err in respect to quantity. To say ora'-tor instead of or'ator, theatre instead of the'atre, is an error in respect to quantity, as it is also in respect to accent. See § 150.

PRONUNCIATION.

§ 173. PRONUNCIATION, Latin pronunciatio, the utterance of speech, is a generic term, including under it the articulation of the phonetic elements, syllabication, accent, quantity. If the pronunciation is erroneous, or if it is correct, it is, as we have just said, erroneous or correct in some of these particulars.

CAUSES AND CONDITIONS OF INCORRECT PRONUNCI

ATION.

§ 174. 1. Defective organs of speech. If, for instance, the lips are defective, the labial elements can not be pronounced, as in model, ballast.

2. A bad ear. When the ear can not discriminate between two sounds, it can not be expected that the voice will exhibit the distinction between them, as, for instance, the distinction of sound between the first syllable of mercy and of merry.

3. Bad models. Children who have before them bad models will, by imitation, adopt them into their own pronunciation. In this way the pronunciation of whole communities is injured.

4. Bad habits. Habits formed in childhood often continue through life. Thus one person, though often corrected, continued through life to say suthing instead of something.

5. A bad condition of the mind. When the mind is sluggish there will be an indistinct utterance. When the mind is fluttered and disturbed, a stammering and confused utterance will be the result.

6. Dwelling on the vocalic to the neglect of the consonantal elements. This is done in the mode of speaking and reading

called sing-song. Indistinctness in the enunciation of the consonantal elements is the consequence.

7. Rapid reading or speaking. The organs taxed in this way beyond their power necessarily slur over or drop certain sounds.

8. A mistake as to the language to which a word belongs. If one considers the word anemone as still belonging to the Greek, or the word orator as still belonging to the Latin, he will pronounce the first anemone, the Greek word aveμúvn being thus pronounced, and the second he will pronounce ora'tor, because it is thus pronounced in the Latin language. Both of these words have in fact become English, and should be pronounced, the one anem'-one and the other or'ator. While a word is a foreign word, it should be treated as a stranger, and as subject to the laws of the language of its own country; but when it has become naturalized, its foreign aspect and accent should be laid aside. In orthography and orthoepy it should conform to the laws of the English language.

9. Mistake as to the true pronunciation of a word in a given language, after it has been ascertained to belong to that language. Thus, to know that the word debris is a French word, and yet to pronounce it de briss, implies an ignorance of the true pronunciation in the French language.

10. The neglect of analogy. This is closely connected with the last. Though there are great irregularities in the language, and much that seems capricious and arbitrary, still there are analogies which give laws to its pronunciation. Thus, in words of two syllables, the law of analogy requires that the accent should fall on the penult, and that in words of three syllables the accent should be on the antepenult. See § 149, 150.

11. Bad spelling. When the phonetic elements of a word are not well represented by the alphabetic characters, the true sound can not be ascertained from the written form, and, at the same time, the false spelling leads directly to a false pronunciation of the word.

§ 175. In the language there are many words of doubtful orthoepy, which can be settled only by an appeal to considerations referred to in the last article. In a given case it becomes nec