One light cross tree fitted to the funnel, also lugbolts on hoop beneath funnel.The rigging on a funnel fitted as top gallant rigging; set up with tackles (for overhauling lee rigging in light weather for bracing up).

Upper topsail yard.-Light as can be with safety. Topsail ditto, fitted with two reefs. Lifts and braces, fitted with clasp hooks. The yard to be sent up and down; sail bent, as a top gallant yard. Sail tackle fitted for the purpose as in paddle wheel steam ships of old.

Topsail tye.-Rove on the bight, to hoist on both ends. Tye block to unpin on sending the yard down. No unreeving tyes.

Top gallant mast and yard.-As usually rigged and fitted. To be fitted abaft, heel resting on a chock on the deck. Head bolted through the top for the topmast to work freely, between it and the

Trysail mast.-Lower mast in fidding and striking. When shifting the topmast, this trysail mast must be unstepped.

Studding sails.-Boom irons fitted to ship and unship. Home station not required. Foreign service. Lower studding sails as now in use. Topmast studding sails-jib cut heads to set from the upper topsail yards cut as spinakers.

Stay sails. To be carried in every available space.

The advantage of this fitting as compared with present rig.-When preparing for battle or ramming you are struck down to the lower masts in a few minutes; with the power of setting a topsail and course. topmast, with all its fouling gear for the screw.

You save the present heavy You can carry a topsail and

course, independent of your topmast, while fidding or striking masts.

The disadvantages.-You lose half a topsail on each mast. Your lower topsail yard is not very easily sent up and down,

ANCIENT GALLEYS AND THEIR MODE OF PROPULSION. By W. S. LINDSAY.

Late M.P. for the Tynemouth Burghs.

[We have very great satisfaction in laying before our readers a paper by an old and valued member of the shipping community. Mr. Lindsay's person, and Mr. Lindsay's voice will be fresh in the memory of those who were in Parliament, as well as in the memory of all persons connected with ships and shipping during one of the periods most important to our Maritime interests. The paper now published is the first portion of a work on the Shipping of all Nations, a work worthy of his name. Its first appearance in the columns of the Nautical Magazine is peculiarly gratifying.-ED. N. M.]

ANCIENT GALLEYS.

Frequent reference has at various times been made to the row-galleys of the ancients, and no subject connected with shipping has called forth more conflicting opinions: nor is this surprising. Most ancient writers who refer to it are less or more at variance with each other; while the engravings on coins and monumental sculptures are generally so confused and contradictory that they afford little assistance in its elucidation. Within the last two centuries numerous authors have endeavoured to solve the problem how these galleys were classed and rowed, and to establish a system of propulsion which, while applicable to every class, would harmonize with the accounts preserved of the size of these vessels and of the number of rowers employed on board of them.

DIFFERENT DESCRIPTIONS.

Galleys appear to have been rated by their banks of oars, that is, uniremes had one, biremes two, triremes three, quadriremes four, quinqueremes five, hexiremes six, septiremes seven, octoremes eight, and so forth, up to the enormous ship, with forty banks of rowers, built by Ptolemy Philopater. But the chief point of controversy has been what constituted a bank or tier.

According to Homer, the Greek fleet at the seige of Troy consisted entirely of uniremes. They were then undecked, with the exception of a platform at each end on which the archers or principal fighting men stood; and were guided by oars or sweeps at both extremities, so as to ensure rapid evolution. Pliny states that the Erythræcans were the first who built biremes. Various writers give the Corinthians the credit for having been the first to construct triremes. "And now Greece," remarks Thucydides, § "began to construct navies and to apply herself more assiduously to nautical affairs. The first who introduced a change in the structure of vessels, so as to form them very nearly in the present mode, are said to be the Corinthians; and triremes are thought to have been built first for Greece at Corinth. It appears, too, that Amiocles, a Corinthian ship-builder, also constructed four such vessels for the Samians."

Although triremes, in the time of Thucydides and for some centuries afterwards, were more approved for purposes of war than any other description of vessel, the authority of Pliny, Diodorus, Siculus, Athenæus, Polybius, and others, is sufficient proof that vessels of four, five, six, and ten banks of oars were built;—that + About B.c. 900. + B.C. 786. § Thucydides (Bloomfield), vol. i. book 1, c. xii. p. 37.

B.C. 1184.

B.C. 450.

Alexander increased the number of banks to twelve;-that Philip, father of Perseus, had a galley of sixteen banks; and—that vessels of four and five banks were frequently engaged in war. The triremes, however, were much more numerous than any other class of galleys except those which had only one bank of oars. Themistocles built three hundred triremes for the purpose of carrying on the war against Ægina; and he obtained a decree authorising the construction of a further, but limited number of these vessels from the produce of certain mines. After his time, twenty triremes were annually built by the Athenians, so as to maintain in efficient order a permanent fleet of from three to four hundred vessels of this description. Triremes consisted of two classes, fighting ships and transports. The former were propelled at great speed frequently reaching seven to eight miles an hour; the average number of rowers employed on each, varying from fifty to two hundred. The transports were bulkier and stronger vessels, and, though armed, were not brought into action except in cases of urgent necessity.

No mention is made of any vessel with more than three banks of oars having been employed in the Peloponnesian War, but quadriremes and quinqueremes were known in the reign of Dionysius I., of Syracuse, and were employed by the Carthaginians † in the first Punic War, who had also in their service some vessels of the hexireme and septireme class. From the ease, however, with which the Romans captured these large vessels (even allowing for their superior energy and vigorous mode of close action), they were evidently much less efficient in proportion to their size than triremes. Nevertheless, according to the testimony of Plutarch, very large galleys were in high favour with Demetrius Poliorcetes, whom he represents as a prince possessing superior knowledge of the arts, and of a highly inventive turn of mind. That prince, he states, caused several of fifteen and sixteen banks to be built, he himself superintending their construction; and so formidable are these vessels said to have appeared, that Lysimachus, when he had ocular confirmation of reports he had heard of their strength and capacity, raised the siege of Rhodes rather than encounter them in action. Plutarch also states that Anthony possessed a fleet of no less than five hundred armed vessels, magnificently adorned, having eight and ten banks of oars, and that he selected the best and largest of them for the celebrated battle of Actium. However exaggerated some of the accounts preserved of these very large galleys may be, and however imperfect and inconsistent the descriptions of them by ancient authors, their existence has been established beyond all doubt.

B.C. 431 to 404.

† B.C. 400.

B.C. 255.

THEIR OUTFIT.

With reference to their outfit, it is sufficient to state that, in nearly every instance, they were highly ornamented with figures carved on the bow and stern. Below the bow, and between it and Fig. 1.

JBBBB

the fore foot or keel, there was generally a projecting piece of very strong timber, to which was attached either a ram's head, sharp metal bolts, cleavers, or some other instrument of destruction.

BEAKS AND ROSTRUMS.

These beaks were at first constructed so as to be visible above the water, but afterwards they were immersed, like the beaks of the iron-clad rams of our own time, themselves evidently copies from original Grecian and Roman designs. The most trustworthy illustrations of these have been taken from the Trajan column and a few coins of the period of which the drawing on Fig. 2 exhibits a fair representation. Nearly the whole of the ancient war galleys had their bows and sterns considerably elevated above the level of the deck. From the former, or the "coursier"-centre platform-an officer regulated the duties of the rowers; whilst the pilot directed, from the quarter-deck, the course of the ship. In many cases, this officer sat under a highly ornamented canopy, from which he issued his commands, and, behind it, there was usually carved the image of the tutelar deity of the galley. From the flagstaff floated her ensign or private signal; and, sometimes, a large vane on the taffrail pointed out the direction of the wind. In the column of Trajan a lantern is shown suspended close to the stern in one of the galleys. Each trireme carried two wooden ladders and three "spreads," poles of different lengths.