of the indicative mood and perfect participle by annexing to the simple form of the verb ed, or d only when the verb ends with e; as, love, loved.

REMARK 1. When a verb ends with y after a consonant, y is exchanged for i, and ed is annexed to form the imperfect tense and perfect participle; as, magnify, magnified, magnified. But when the y is preceded by a vowel, it is not changed, and ed is annexed as before; as, delay, delayed, delayed.

REM. 2. Monosyllables and verbs accented on the last syllable, ending with a single consonant after a single vowel, double the final consonant and add the ed to form the imperfect tense and perfect participle; as, omit, omitted, omitted; quit, quitted, quitted.

REM. 3. When an active verb is formed by the combination of the neuter verb to be and an active participle, it is regular or irregular according as the participle is derived from a regular or irregular verb.

REM. 4. Verbs are often compounded of a preposition and verb; as, undergo, overlook, withstand. In these compounds, the preposition is prefixed to the verb. But sometimes the preposition follows the verb, and affects it in the same manher as if it preceded it. Whether it precedes or follows it, if it gives a new meaning, the preposition forms a part of the verb; as, to cast, means to throw, but cast up means to compute. Smile on; build up, etc.

EXERCISES FOR DISTINGUISHING DIFFERENT VERBS.

I walk, I love friends, I set, I am, I was loved, I have been taught, the horse runs.

Which of the preceding verbs are transitive? Which, in transitive? Which, passive?

SECOND COURSE.

When a verb ends with y, preceded by a consonant, what change is made to form the imperfect tense? How do monosyllables and verbs accented on the last syllable, ending with a single consonant, form the imperfect? If an active verb is formed by the combination of the verb to be and an active participle, when is it regular or irregular? Are verbs ever compounded with prepositions?

MODIFICATIONS OF VERBS.

$132. Verbs have four modifications; modes, tenses, number, and person.

MODES.

§ 133. Mode is the manner of representing an action or state expressed by the verb.

134. There are four modes, the indicative, the subjunctive, the infinitive, and the imperative.

In

REMARK. The potential mode is not adopted in this grammar, because all the verbs to which it is applied may, with perfect consistency, come under the definition of the indicative mode. In each of the propositions, Charles rides and Charles can ride, an affirmation is made. The only difference between the two propositions consists in what is affirmed. the proposition, Charles rides, a real action is affirmed; but in the proposition, Charles can ride, a possible action is affirmed. The difference, then, not referring to the affirmation, but to what is affirmed, or to the different meaning of the verbs, should not be admitted as a principle on which a distinct mode may be formed. If so, there may be as many modes as there are different meanings of verbs. Indeed, as each verb has a meaning that differs more or less from the signification of every other, on such a principle of forming modes, there would be as many modes as verbs; and instead of four modes, we should have forty-three thousand, which is the number of verbs in the English language, according to Lowth. The propositions, "He may study," "He might study," "He could study," affirm an ability or power to study. The expression, "He must study," affirms a necessity of studying; and as the indicative mode affirms or denies something, or asks a question, all the verbs to which the potential mode has been applied by most authors, may with the utmost propriety be arranged under it.

FIRST COURSE.

How are verbs modified? What is mode? How many modes are there ?

SECOND COURSE.

State reasons why the potential mode is not adopted in this grammar.

§ 135. The indicative mode declares or denies something, or asks a question; as, "The boy studies;" "He may, can, or might study;" "What is the greatest good?"

REMARK. The indicative mode is known by the sense, or by its asking a question.

§ 136. The subjunctive mode denotes a doubtful or conditional action or state; as, "If I go," "If I may, can, might, or must go;" "If he shall go."

REMARK. Conjunctions that denote doubt, as, if, though, unless, except, etc., are signs of the subjunctive mode.

§ 137. The infinitive mode denotes an action or state generally, without limiting it to any person or thing as its subject or actor; as, to run, to labor, to be.

REMARK. To prefixed to the verb, is the sign of the infinitive mode.

§ 138. The imperative mode is used to command, exhort, entreat, or permit; as, depart thou, stay thou, go in peace.

REMARK 1. The imperative mode is known by its agreeing with thou, ye, or you, expressed or implied. The subject nominative of verbs in the imperative mode, is not generally expressed.

REM. 2. A verb in the imperative mode has only the present tense, though, from its nature, it has reference to the future.

EXERCISES FOR DISTINGUISHING DIFFERENT MODES.

John loved, if he walks, provided he reach, to run, to be, to have been, go, study, obey.

Which of the preceding verbs are of the indicative mode? Which, of the subjunctive? Which, of the infinitive? Which, of the imperative?

FIRST COURSE.

Define the indicative mode. The subjunctive mode. The infinitive mode. The imperative mode.

SECOND COURSE.

How is the indicative mode known? What conjunctions are signs of the subjunctive mode? When to is prefixed to a verb, what is it the sign of? How is the imperative mode known? How many tenses has the imperative mode?

TENSES.

§ 139. Tenses denote the times of the action or state expressed by the verb.

REMARK. A general division of time is the present, past, and future; but in order to mark the times of actions or states more specifically, it is made to consist of six variations, or

enses.

§ 140. The six tenses, are the present, the imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, the first and second futures.

REMARK. The division of the tenses has occasioned grammarians much trouble and perplexity. The one adopted in this treatise, is used in most grammars, and probably is as correct as it can be made without increasing very much their number. This, in a treatise on the elementary principles, I think is inexpedient; for thus the subject would become more complicated, and less adapted to the capacity of the young student. Moreover, innovations should be avoided, unless they promise some real good. I shall comprehend in the remarks under the definition of each tense, all that I should attempt to illustrate by a multiplication of the tenses.

§ 141. The present tense denotes a present action or state, or a possible, conditional, or necessary present action or state; as, 66 The boy reads," he may, can, might, could, would, or should read. "If he reads," if he can, might, could, would, or should read; "James must study."

REMARK 1. The above definition is given to it, because it suits not only the meaning of verbs in the indicative, but also those in the other modes. The definitions, usually, are suited only to the meaning of verbs in the indicative mode. In the

FIRST COURSE.

What are tenses? How many tenses are there? What does the present tense denote ?

SECOND COURSE.

How many general divisions of time are there? Has the division of tenses occasioned grammarians any difficulty? What reasons are there for adopting the definition given to the present tense?

proposition, “The boy reads," a positive action is affirmed by
the verb reads. But if we prefix to the same verb the aux-
iliary can, a widely different meaning is expressed. Not a
positive, but a possible action is denoted. The proposition
does not affirm that the boy actually reads, but that he is
able, or, that it is possible for him to read. So in the propo-
sition, I am, a real state is affirmed; but in the sentence, I
can, might, could, would, or should be, not a real but a possi-
ble state is declared. The subjunctive mode does not affirm
a positive action or state, but simply a conditional or supposed
action or state, and therefore the common definition of the
present tense is not suited to a verb of this mode. "James
would have excelled Charles in knowledge, if he had been placed
in equally favorable circumstances." In this sentence, the
last verb, had been placed, denotes a conditional action.
stitute had been for had been placed, and there will be ex-
pressed a conditional state. "William must obey wholesome
rules." Here the auxiliary gives to the verb obey a meaning
of necessity. For such considerations, the terms possible, con-
ditional, and necessary are given in the definition of the pre-
sent tense. The same terms, for the same reasons, may be
included in the definition of the imperfect, and the term con-
ditional in the perfect, pluperfect, first and second futures.

Sub

REM. 2. The present tense sometimes denotes a specific time of action or state which corresponds with the time of another action or state; as, I am writing, while you are studying.

REM. 3. The present tense often denotes general facts, truths, habits, and customary actions, as existing without any reference to specific time; as, God is good; Man is frail; Trees grow; Birds fly; Waves roll; He walks every morning; He visits the country every summer. It is also sometimes applied to persons who are dead, but whose works remain; as, "Seneca moralizes well;" "David mourns deeply for his sins."

REM. 4. "The present tense in the subjunctive," when it is followed by a member containing a verb in the future indicative, and also in the other modes when preceded by as soon as, after, before, till, or when, generally refers to a future ac

SECOND COURSE.

Does the present tense ever denote a specific time of action? What does the present tense often denote? When does the present tense re fer to a future action or state?

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