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our schools above the intermediate grade. Two great facts would be undoubtedly established, could a universal examination of the State schools be successfully carried on: first, the alarming deficiency in the character of the teaching; and, second, the low average standard of our common-school instruction. By far the larger number of pupils leave the public schools of New England before entering what may properly be called the grammar-school grade of study. In a certain New England city an estimate of the average attainments of all the pupils in mathematics, for a given year, was but little above the four rules, with their simple practice. In spelling, the standard was comparatively higher, but in geography and grammar, or language, not so high.

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There are in Pennsylvania over nineteen thousand teachers of public schools, but the Superintendent of Common Schools says: "We have only about 2,500 teachers fully qualified for their work;" and again, "Of the 15,003 teachers receiving certificates to teach during the year, only 374 were found to have a thorough knowledge of reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, and grammar, and that practical preparation for their profession which insures success.' Similar complaints, perhaps not so plainly expressed, are found in other State reports. In fact, when we take into account the low average pay of teachers, the itineracy of their occupation, outside of the cities, and the fact that local measures, plans, and expenditures prevent anything like a true system of education, we see that the results obtained are all but accidental, and are not surprised that, at the recent examination for admission to West Point, nearly one-third of all the candidates, very many of whom had doubtless been specially selected by the appointing Congressmen, through confidence in

their ability, were rejected for deficiency in elementary English studies.

But the sphere of influence in which the State Superintendent is most powerful is quite undefinable. It consists in a power of vitalizing the whole educational forces of the State; in adjusting those parts which tend to inharmonious action; in encouraging the weaker elements, and those which seem ready to faint and to become discouraged; and in imparting an esprit du corps of real courage and enthusiasm to the whole educational body, such a spirit as a great general imparts to an army, above the mere order of command, and superior to the regulations which govern the camp, or the line of march;-such action as that of Jules Simon, Minister of Public Instruction in France during the Franco-Prussian war, in establishing the foundations of an elementary normal school for male and female teachers. It has a ring of heroism in it superior to the achievements of her best soldiers in the field. Hear his words: "If you ask why we establish this school now, at a time when every one is anxiously watching the fearful conflict raging in the very heart of our country, at a time when all other duties seem to be absorbed in the one of national defence, we answer that this question of reform in the field of education had been matured long ago; that we have studied it many years; and that not a day is to be lost. This present war, though commenced against the will of the nation, must, nevertheless, be placed to its account; for eighteen long years it has patiently borne the oppressive rule of the originators of this war,men, during whose reign the standard of public and private morality has been lowered, and who have guided the nation in a wrong direction. The unexampled misfortunes which have

befallen the country during the last two weeks of the empire, should teach us the lesson, never to be forgotten, that the only power which makes a nation invincible, is the intellectual and moral power. This we must restore before we can hope for victory on the battlefield." Such courage, trust, and fidelity to duty, and faith in the power of education to save the State, are equal to those virtues exercised by Roman patriots, who bought at a high price the ground upon which the seemingly victorious army of besiegers were encamped.

Of a similar character in his duties, but more closely connected with the people, is the county or district superintendent. In the Western States, county superintendency is the almost universal rule. The same system is in operation in New York, Pennsylvania, and other of the Middle, and some of the Southern States. These officers have supervision over from one hundred to two hundred and fifty schools and teachers. They conduct institutes, inspect schools, examine and certificate teachers, collect statistics, and make returns to the State authorities. To the faithful efforts of these school officers is due much of the great success which attends the work of education in the Western States where this office exists. In the words of the Board of Education of Massachusetts, recommending to the Legislature the creation of district superintendents, "it will be no part of the duty of these authorities to displace any of the local authorities now controlling our schools, or any of the wisdom by which they are now counseled. On the contrary, they will aid and strengthen them. They will visit the schools in company with the local committees, counsel the teachers in regard to the best methods of instruction and government, and by lectures and otherwise seek to awaken an increased interest in this

great instrumentality of the public welfare." As county officers, they should be elected by the people to whom they should be amenable for the thorough and satisfactory performance of their work, and should hold office for a term of four years at least. The very efficient work done in Maine during several years, is in no small degree due to the spirit and energy of the county superintendents, directed as they were by their late very able Superintendent Johnson. He regarded this element of supervision the right arm of school force in that State. .I believe that in most of our States where it does not exist, county or district supervision would be an auxiliary of great value to the State officers, and at the same time awaken a deep interest and enthusiasm by a more direct and personal contact with the local schools and school authorities. Thirty-seven States and Territories have county supervision.

The office of towns' school committee had its origin in the early settlement of New England. The official titles and functions were various, but in all the appointments to this position there was recognized the necessity of an oversight and management of the schools, independent of that which the town exercised in their establishment, and in providing for their support. The best educated persons of the community were usually selected to perform the duties of the school board, and in this office the ministry of New England have had a large influence in giving direction to the educational policy of the public schools. The duties of the committee were not well defined at the outset, but consisted, in the main, in giving official approbation to the teachers selected, ordinarily prefacing such approval by a more or less thorough examination as to qualifications in the branches required to be taught in the schools,

and in methods of teaching. The committee also visited the schools each term, and gave such instruction and advice to teachers and pupils as the circumstances seemed to require. The school committee often made the contracts with teachers, divided the money of the town among the districts, and gave orders on the treasury for the payment of the teachers. From such beginnings, often very rude and imperfect, has grown up the present system, quite universal in its application, of the election. of a school board in towns and cities. These boards vary in size of membership from three to fifty, and in some cases in cities, even a larger number control the school affairs. The fact that the office is everywhere recognized is evidence of its importance as a force in controlling school affairs. Its functions still continue as varied at the first, though, as a general rule, the duties of the school committee are well defined by rules and regulations, or by law. The following are among the usual duties of school committees:

1. The examination of teachers.

2. The granting of certificates to teachers for one year, and the power to annul the same.

3. The location of all school-houses.

4. The visiting every public school in the town at least twice during each term.

5. The adoption of all rules and regulations relating to the management of schools.

6. The suspension of pupils from school.

7. The adoption of new text-books.

8. The apportionment of the public money to the several school districts.

9. The contracting with teachers, and the management of all school affairs, when so authorized by the town. 10. The written approval of all district taxes.

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