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Review Recent Controversy on Materialism.

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Heathen philosopher had no aid from "stumbling-block" to the Greeks. This was his defence before Felix: "After the way which they call heresy, so worship I the God of my fathers; and have hope towards God that there shall be a resurrection both of the just and the unjust; and herein do I exercise myself to have always a conscience void of offence towards God and men." So also before King Agrippa: " And now I stand and am judged for the hope of the promise made of God unto our fathers, for which hope's sake, King Agrippa, I am accused of the Jews. Why should it be thought a thing incredible with you that God should raise the dead?"

the light of revelation. Accordingly, we find it a favourite speculation of the Oriental philosophers, and of the "Wise Men" of Greece and Rome. Indeed it is probable, that the doctrine of Immateriality owed its early origin to the natural and proud desire of a future state, so inherent in man, and was the only theory on which, with their limited physical and metaphysical knowledge, they could found its belief. To enumerate or examine the several opinions of the Heathen philosophers on immortality and causation, is inconsistent with our limits; and we will take the liberty of referring our readers to a very interesting work on that subject, by Mr. Scott, Aberdeen Professor of Moral Philosophy. The philosophical inquirer also is familiar with the "intellectual system" of the learned and laborious Cudworth, who, in his refutation of Atheism, has amply explored the laby rinths of ancient metaphysics. Neither shall we here enter into the controversies concerning the belief of the ancients in a future state, or the singular silence of the Old Testament on the subject. Both have occupied a distinguished rank in British literature, and engaged the learning and research of many celebrated names. Suffice it to observe, in processu, with respect to the hope and theories of the Heathens, that the faint and anxious expectation indulged by some few, and the bold denial of all possibility of futurity by others, constitute an unanswerable argument for the necessity or rather for the utility of revelation: and as to the question of the Jewish Scriptures, which engaged the pens of Warburton and Middleton, the very fact of the controversy is a plain proof that the doctrine of a future state and the immateriality of the human mind was not revealed; or, at all events, most imperfectly, and could not have been a principal object of the old covenant: and, indeed, the existence of the sect of the Sadducees would of itself have afforded a strong proof. It was reserved for the glorious distinction of Christianity to bring "life and immortality to light," and Christ became "the first-fruits of them which slept." It was this glorious and invaluable privilege which Paul preached to the men of Athens, that

Now to every reflecting and critical reader of the New Testament, it is notorious that the very few particulars communicated as to a future state, indeed it may almost be asserted, that the bare promise and the title to it, constitute the whole revelation. On some future occasion we shall enlarge on this interesting topic. The scantiness of the divine communication has been often lamented, even by Christians themselves, and, we believe, is a cause of great anxiety with many very pious believers; but this limited knowledge appears to us perfectly consistent with the economy of the Divine government, and the silence of the sacred writers on this subject, a very remarkable testimony of their integrity. We shall, however, at present, only observe, that these metaphysical obliquities, now under censure, are in themselves a fair proof how little the limited power of the human mind can comprehend on such a subject; and, consequently, that unless man was differently endowed than by his present constitution, such particulars could not be the objects of revelation, because he could not have compréhended them. Our future existence, calculated for immortal duration, can be conceived by no analogical knowledge of our present mortal senses; for if man's understanding could comprehend the secrets and powers of Divine Omnipotency, it would of necessity be equal to it: sufficient that we are assured of our mental identity; and as to the mode of our resuming that, what could the knowledge of it add to the sense or influence of our moral responsibility, or to our grateful anticipation of future happiness? We

are ignorant whether there be not passions in the human mind which, in this world, remain dormant and undiscovered, for want of objects to excite them; and with respect to the manner of our resurrection, we are described as the "workmanship of the Creator," and all Deists have conceded, that the Creator who first made us could remake us after dissolution. The sculptor can mould his plaister into various shapes, can again confound it into a general mass, and again fashion them from the same; shall we deny the same power to the Great Sculptor of nature? Lord Herbert, in his celebrated Dialogues, p. 169, has the following admission: "His restoring the dead to life seems miraculous, because it is rare and unusual; though yet, if we consider things aright, the birth of a child would be the greater wonder: it not being so strange, that any which once was, should be again, as that which never was, should be at all." Mr. Paine, also, in the 2nd part of his Age of Reason, makes the same confession, expressing his hope and expectation of futurity. We, as Christians, are no more bound to explain how this hope will be realized than the sceptic is. If God raise the dead, whether they have the same bodies they had formerly, or whether some other particles of matter be in the composition of them, or whether they will not have something added to counteract their former mortality, does he not do what he promised? The question is certainly a very immaterial one; and Alexander, in his Paraphrase on Corinthians, very pertinently remarks, that it is not the most interesting that can be imagined, since it may be reduced to this point-Whether our houses from heaven, as the apostle calls them, will be entirely new, both for matter and form, or fitted up in part out of the old materials. Nor do we consider that this physiological or metaphysical controversy at all involves the question of an intermediate state; and we were, some months since, greatly surprised to hear the horror expressed by a venerable and learned ornament of the Dissenting Church, on the accidental introduction, by Mr. Belsham, of his (Mr. Belsham's) disbelief of an intermediate state preceding a day of general judgment. On the occasion alluded

to, the " sleep of the soul," or this temporary suspension of existence, was denounced as incompatible with any rational hope of futurity. Surely nothing could be more unphilosophical than such an inference. We well know the flattering prospect which the dying Christian sees, of an immediate junction with those friends who have gone before him to their long home; but how vulgar is the prejudice against the heterodox belief in the temporary suspension of existence between the days of death and judgment, and an interregnum perhaps ordained by the superior wisdom of the Deity! This is purely a speculative subject, and we by no means assert a confident opinion against an intermediate state; but from the consideration we have hitherto given it, we do conceive that the doctrine of Materialism is here consistent with reason and scripture, and would argue against it. We shall make use of some very remarkable arguments of Alexander, selected from pp. 46, 47.

"The time which passes between death and the resurrection may be very short. And though it should be some ages longer than we apprehend, yet to them that sleep, and are unconscious of what passes, it will appear less than a moment; and the very same instant which separates them from this mortal life, must, to their unites them for ever to their Saviour and thought and apprehension, be that which their God. I do not mention it with any considerable stress, that there seems a sort of equality, which is not unpleasing to the human mind, in such a constitution as we are speaking of, where no person is distinguished from another, either to his advantage or loss, on account of a difference in the time of his birth, which is wholly arbitrary, and conbut each man appearing in his own order, stitutes no part of his character or desert: and receiving at the hand of Providence the materials of his future character and hope, having filled up the station assigned him either to his honour or disgrace, retires at the appointed time, and waits till a general day of retribution; to receive, in common with all who have borne any part in the concerns of human life, that sentence which his conduct has Parent. And one person has no more deserved, from the universal Judge and has not been made into his character and reason to complain, that an examination conduct before this time, than another that he was not brought into the scene sooner."

Review Recent Controversy on Materialism.

And to examine the justice of another imputed imperfection of revelation, namely, the indefinite period of the day of judgment, we shall further quote the observations of the same ingenious commentator, from pp. 89, 90. Many "probable reasons" may be mentioned, "why the precise time of this event was left so undetermined, or rather entirely unknown."

"For as the gospel has fixed the time of judgment to the coming of Christ, and gives men no promise or expectation of a retribution before that period, to have determined this coming to any particular æra, would have been attended with two manifest inconveniences. First, the more remote any ages of men were from the period foretold, they would consider themselves as so much the less interested in its approach; and, therefore, the expectation of it would have a proportionably smaller influence upon their apprehensions and practice. Secondly, the nearer the world drew to its conclusion, men would be more strongly affected, and at last thrown into the utmost confusion, The springs of human action would by degrees lose their force, the business of the world come to a stand, while all were intent upon the approaching revolution. These inconveniences are sufficiently provided against by the wisdom of heaven. For as we are cautioned to beware of false prophets, who should pretend to tell us that Christ is in this or that place, and immediately to appear; so we are warned against another abuse, proceeding from a contrary cause, namely, a presumption of its delay, by which too many would be led to set at defiance an event which they thought afar off, and long in coming. Matt. xxiv. 48. And further, the suddenness with which it will take place is intended to prevent that disorder in human affairs which the apprehension of its near but slow approach would at any time occasion.-The uncertainty of

this event bears a near resemblance to

the natural uncertainty of human life, and seems calculated to produce the same effect. He who tells me that I am mortal, tells me that death is near, that life is short and the days few, that I may die soon or suddenly, that I should be continually expecting the end of life, and not be surprised if it should take place to-morrow. And he is equally a true prophet, whether I die the next day or live beyond fourscore. Is not this the language of Scripture, with respect to the coming of Christ ?"

These remarks may, perhaps, be thought out of place, or foreign to the

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subject: they will, however, shew, the Materialist may have a most consistent belief in revelation, and that "Materialism and Atheism" do not go hand in hand." We considered it highly important to prove, that Christianity is not endangered in these disputes on the vital principle; and we shall, afterwards, shew from the orthodox wranglers themselves, how little they are, in fact, interested in establishing the separate existence of the

soul.

The really interesting question, therefore, arises, How was this spuri

ous doctrine foisted into the fundamentals of the Christian faith, and at what period was the simplicity of Christianity destroyed by its introduction? It was the gift of Paganism to Revelation in that early defection of the Eastern and Western churches from the simple tenets taught by our Saviour and his primitive disciples; and the doctrine of Immateriality was the axis on which the doctrines of Purgatory, Transubstantiation and the

Hypostatic Union" revolved, and without which these ecclesiastical mints could not have been worked to any pecuniary advantage. On this was founded the institution of masses and saintly shrines; and was, indeed, the soul of that funding system of priestcraft, which ultimately saddled tive labour on the industry of the such a grinding weight of unproducpeople. In this subtle fluid was the credulity of the people steeped, and their whole faith was pinned on that crafty motto of monastic art-" Piu ci metti, piu meriti"-the more you give, the more's the merit! Dr. Priestley's able pedigree of this natural child of Heathenism is well known, and here we shall leave it; for no one, tohow much more this doctrine owes its lerably read in history, is ignorant birth and existence to Plato and Eneas than to Christ or his apostles.

This controversy, both in its physiological and metaphysical relations, has been often agitated in Europe. Our limits will not, however, allow us to sketch any particular outline of the systems which have successively supplanted each other. This will be found to have been performed in a very full and able manner by Dr. Barclay, in the 3rd and 4th chapters of his volume (the last article in our

notice). The third chapter details the opinions of those who, since the revival of learning in Europe, have treated of the causes of organization, and ascribed the principal phenomena of life to organic structure. These comprise the distinguished names of Paracelsus, Fray, Darwin, Leibnitz, Priestley, Haller, Buffon, Needham, Maupertuis, Robinet, Blumenbach, Gassendi, Cuvier, Lawrence, Cabanis, Des Cartes, &c. The 4th chapter particularizes the opinions of those who suppose a living internal principle distinct from the body, and likewise the cause of organization; comprehend ing the celebrated names of Harvey, Willis, Hunter, Abernethy, Deleure and Grew.

To enter into any separate examination of these various theories is impossible: they compose a Babel of hypotheses; and, as Dr. Barclay remarks in his summary view, all physiological writers, both ancient and modern, seem to be agreed, that the causes of life and organization are utterly invisible, whether they pass under the name of animating principles, vital principles, indivisible atoms, spermatic powers, organic particles, organic germs, formative appetencies, formative propensities, formative forces, formative minuses, pre-existing monads, semina rerum, plastic natures, occult qualities, or certain unknown chemical affinities!

The theological part of this controversy, as connected with our own country, forms no part of the present review; and, indeed, a most impartial history of it has been compiled by Archdeacon Blackburne, in his "Historical View of the Controversy concerning an Intermediate State, and the Separate Existence of the Soul; 2nd ed., 1772."

We pass over altogether the many absurd theories which might amuse our readers, though not instruct them; and which have abounded in the last century, from the opinions of Bishop Berkley to animal magnetism, inclusive, and not forgetting the hypothesis of the celebrated modern French chemist, Delametherie, who affirms that the Deity is nothing more than a crystallization! Bishop B. pretended to disbelieve the evidence of his senses, and to doubt the existence of matter: he contended, that sensible, material

objects, as they are called, are not external to the mind, but exist in it, and are nothing more than impressions or shadows made upon it by the immediate act of the Deity. To reason with any of these visionists would be to fall to a level with them in absurdity. The pens and ink with which they wrote their paradoxes, were their refutation; as the works of those ultraorthodox which contend against the use of reason in matters of religion, by their very arguing disprove the position. We shall confine ourselves, therefore, to the question at issue, as relating to the principle of vitality in man considered as matter and a body.

And, to arrive at a simple definition, we shall borrow the definitions of an author whose work, though on a department of Natural History of confined interest, we have lately read with great admiration of his power of abstract reasoning, and of the truly philosophical liberality with which, though an Immaterialist, he states the arguments of Materialism. *

"Particles of matter when collected

together in a mass of any degree of size or compactness form a body. An organic body is a mass of matter of which the component molecules are or have been in motion on being collected together by intussusception. Such a body is said to live or to have lived. By the term life we would express that faculty which certain combinations of material particles possess, of existing for a certain time under a determinate form, and of drawing while in this state into their composition, and assimilating to their own nature, a part of the substances which may surround them, and of restoring the same again under various forms."

Mr. Macleay goes on to observe:

"How this faculty is acquired, what is its immediate cause, or, in other words, whether there may not be several mediate causes between it and the Primary which we are totally incompetent. It is Cause, are questions to the solution of to the organic body what the expansion of steel is to a watch, or that of steam is to the engine; but if we ask what is expansion? what is life? we can get no answer but a recital of their effects."

We have thus borrowed this clear description of man as the most con

Hora Entomologica: or, Essays on the Aunulose Animals; by W. S. Macleay, Esq., A. M. F. L. S.

Review. Recent Controversy on Materialism.

cise in its language and idea we ever
met with. The distinctive character
of man, and the superiority of his sen-
tient principle to that of all organized
beings, is too evident to need any
illustration: nor can it, we think, be
denied by any species of sceptic, that
this world is particularly designed for
his developement. God made man
after his own image, endowed him with
reason, that distinctive prerogative of
our nature, and delegated to him cer-
tain limited powers.
"Let them have
dominion over the fish of the sea, and
over the fowl of the air, and over the
cattle, and over the earth, and over
every creeping thing that creepeth
upon the earth."

"Far as Creation's ample range extends,
The scale of sensual mental powers

ascends:

Mark how it mounts to man's imperial

race,

From the green myriads in the peopled grass."

We might give endless quotations, were it necessary, from sceptical writers and comparative anatomists, in proof of the vast superiority of our nature, sentient and organic, over the whole organized creation. Lord Monboddo has, indeed, endeavoured to assimilate us to baboons, with amputated tails; and Lord Kames has described the Giages (an African nation) as a species totally distinct from mankind, because they killed their own children, and robbed the nurseries of their enemies: two instances among many, that writers against Revelation have nevertheless a credulity equal, if not superior, to that of any Christian fanatic.

It is the study of our intellectual nature which we term metaphysical science; the study of our organic nature, physiology. The great physiological question at issue is, respecting the cause of the vital phenomena, whether the effect of a certain organism of the materials which compose the visible structure, or a principle totally distinct: the metaphysical question, whether the sentient principle, or faculty of thinking, can be produced out of the powers and various modifications of matter, or is a something superadded to matter. Hence arose, among the ancients, those subtle, scholastic questions relative to final causes, which have continued to the present times, and as long as this

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world exists will afford matter for disputation. Previous to the days of Lord Bacon, the object of philosophical inquiry was directed, not to the actual state of the creation as it appears to be formed, but to the means by which it has arrived at its present state. The vast progress of science since the memorable introduction of Lord Bacon's principles of induction, has occupied the pen of Mr. Dugald Stewart in a dissertation which, for real knowledge and eloquent language, eclipses the works of all modern his torians.

We have thus distinguished the opinions of metaphysicians into Materialism and Immaterialism. We have shewn the unpopularity of the former theory to arise very much from its contradiction of the popular religion of the world, both Pagan and Roman Catho lic, wherever they have been " the law of the land;" and in later times, it owes much of its obnoxious character to being the basis of the celebrated system of Spinoza, and the doctrine of many of the sceptics of the last century. A refutation of Spinonism and Atheism cannot be needed in our pages. Atheism, were it cultivated as a system, might indeed merit the notice of a legislature, since every tie of society is destroyed and all the motives of virtue buried in "annihilation, the sanctuary of sin." But the works of Boyle, Bently, Cudworth, Clarke, Tucker and Paley, are barriers against the inroad of this black infidelity, and have demonstrated the material world,

one stupendous whole, Whose body Nature is, and God the soul."

The advocates of Materialism may be subdivided into two parties; viz. those who believe in the authority of revealed religion, and those who do not. The Christian Materialist usually believes in the immateriality of the Deity, but contends that the sentient, cogitative principle in man is not distinct from the body, but the result of its organization. The Deistical Materialists appear to verge closely on Spinonism, and argue, that, as the powers of perception and thought have never been found but in conjunction with a certain organized system of matter, therefore those powers usually exist in and depend on such a system. They have been nearly all unbelievers in a

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