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ture may provide that the operation of a law shall be contingent upon the existence of an act of Congress of a certain purport.75

C. Constitutional Limitations

§ 36. In general. The legislature cannot legally enact any law in violation of constitutional limitations. Such a statute is absolutely void.76 And if a statute is clearly unconstitutional, the courts must declare it void, and refuse to enforce it. They have no discretion in such a case. But every presumption is in favor of the validity of a statute. Any doubts must be resolved in favor of its validity, and no statute will be declared unconstitutional unless it is clearly so beyond any reasonable doubt.78

The courts do not sit in review of the discretion of the legislature in Cranch (U. S.) 382, 3 L. Ed. 378. 3 S. D. 55, 51 N. W. 858, 15 L. R. A. 75 A state statute is not invalid 477, 44 Am. St. Rep. 756. as delegating legislative authority to the federal government because it recites that it is intended to provide for the enforcement of a federal statute. State v. Brothers, 144 Minn. 337, 175 N. W. 685.

76 Northwestern Mfg. Co. v. Chambers, 58 Mich. 381, 25 N. W. 372, 55 Am. Rep. 693; People v. Marx, 99 N. Y. 377, 2 N. E. 29, 52 Am. Rep. 34; In re Jacobs, 98 N. Y. 98, 50 Am. Rep. 636; Barker v. People, 3 Cow. (N. Y.) 686, 15 Am. Dec. 322.

77 United States. Minnesota V. Barber, 136 U. S. 313, 34 L. Ed. 455, 10 Sup. Ct. 862; Powell v. Pennsylvania, 127 U. S. 678, 32 L. Ed. 253, 8 Sup. Ct. 992, aff'g 114 Pa. St. 265, 7 Atl. 913, 60 Am. Rep. 350.

California. Ex parte Kuback, 85 Cal. 274, 24 Pac. 737, 9 L. R. A. 482, 20 Am. St. Rep. 226.

Florida. Harper v. Galloway, 58 Fla. 255, 51 So. 226, 26 L. R. A. (N. S.) 794, 19 Ann. Cas. 235.

Illinois. Frorer v. People, 141 Ill. 171, 31 N. E. 395, 16 L. R. A. 492.

New York. People v. Gillson, 109 N. Y. 389, 17 N. E. 343, 4 Am. St. Rep. 465; In re Jacobs, 98 N. Y. 98, 50 Am. Rep. 636.

South Dakota. State v. Scougal,

78 United States. Booth v. State of Illinois, 184 U. S. 425, 46 L. Ed. 623, 22 Sup. Ct. 425, aff'g 186 Ill. 43, 57 N. E. 798, 50 L. R. A. 762, 78 Am. St. Rep. 229; Powell v. Pennsylvania, 127 U. S. 678, 32 L. Ed. 253, 8 Sup. Ct. 992, aff'g 114 Pa. St. 265, 7 Atl. 913, 60 Am. Rep. 350; C. .A. Weed & Co. v. Lockwood, 264 Fed. 453; United States v. Shauver, 214 Fed. 154, writ of error dismissed 248 U. S. 594, 63 L. Ed. 438, 38 Sup. Ct.

134.

Alabama. Whaley v. State, 168 Ala. 152, 52 So. 941, 30 L. R. A. (N. S.) 499; State v. McCarty, 5 Ala. App. 212, 59 So. 543.

California. In re Ahart, 172 Cal. 762, 159 Pac. 160.

Florida. Harper v. Galloway, 58 Fla. 255, 51 So. 226, 26 L. R. A. (N. S.) 794, 19 Ann. Cas. 235.

Georgia. Atlantic Coast Line R. Co. v. State, 135 Ga. 545, 69 S. E. 725, 32 L. R. A. (N. S.) 20.

Illinois. People v. Beak, 291 Ill. 449, 126 N. E. 201; People v. Joyce, 246 Ill. 124, 92 N. E. 607, 20 Ann. Cas. 472; People v. McBride, 234 Ill. 146, 84 N. E. 865, 123 Am. St. Rep. 82, 14 Ann. Cas. 994.

Indiana. State V. Gerhardt, 145

matters which are within its power, nor determine upon the expediency, wisdom, or propriety of its action in such matters.79

Ind. 439, 44 N. E. 469, 33 L. R. A. 313; Hedderich v. State, 101 Ind. 564, 1 N. E. 47, 51 Am. Rep. 768.

Kentucky. Com. v. Hodges, 137 Ky. 233, 125 S. W. 689.

Maryland. Fell v. State, 42 Md. 71, 20 Am. Rep. 83.

Missouri. State v. Merchants' Exchange of St. Louis, 269 Mo. 346, 190 S. W. 903, Ann. Cas. 1917 E. 871, aff'd 248 U. S. 365, 63 L. Ed. 300, 39 Sup. Ct. 114; State v. Pond, 93 Mo. 606, 6 S. W. 469; State v. Addington, 77 Mo. 110.

Montana. In re O'Brien, 29 Mont. 530, 75 Pac. 196, 1 Ann. Cas. 373.

Nebraska. Davis v. State, 51 Neb. 301, 70 N. W. 984.

New York. People v. Crane, 214 N. Y. 154, 108 N. E. 427, L. R. A. 1916 D 550, Ann. Cas. 1915 B 1254; People v. Albertson, 55 N. Y. 50; People v. Warden of City Prison, 154 App. Div. 413, 139 N. Y. Supp. 277, rev'g 74 Misc. 151, 134 N. Y. Supp. 335; People v. Willi, 109 Misc. 79, 179 N. Y. Supp. 542.

V.

Armour

North Dakota. State & Co., 27 N. D. 177, 145 N. W. 1033, L. R. A. 1916 E 380, Ann. Cas. 1916 B 1149, aff'd 240 U. S. 510, 60 L. Ed. 771, 36 Sup. Ct. 440.

Oregon. State V. Jacobson, 80 Ore. 648, 157 Pac. 1108, L. R. A. 1916 E 1180; State v. Bunting, 71 Ore. 259, 139 Pac. 731, L. R. A. 1917 C 1162, Ann. Cas. 1916 C 1003.

Pennsylvania. Com. v. Keary, 198 Pa. 500, 48 Atl. 472; Com. v. McKenty, 52 Pa. Super. Ct. 332.

Rhode Island. State v. Foster, 22 R. I. 163, 46 Atl. 833, 50 L. R. A. 339.

Texas. Ex parte Francis, 72 Tex. Cr. 304, 165 S. W. 147; Hughes v. State, 67 Tex. Cr. 333, 149 S. W. 173.

Utah. State v. Holden, 14 Utah 71, 46 Pac. 756, 37 L. R. A. 103. Washington. State V. Ide, 35 Wash. 576, 77 Pac. 961, 67 L. R. A. 280, 102 Am. St. Rep. 914.

West Virginia. State v. Peel Splint Coal Co., 36 W. Va. 802, 15 S. E. 1000, 17 L. R. A. 385.

Wyoming. State v. Sherman, 18 Wyo. 169, 105 Pac. 299, 27 L. R. A. (N. S.) 898, Ann. Cas. 1912 C 819.

The burden of showing that it is unconstitutional is on the party asserting that such is the case. State v. McCarty, 5 Ala. App. 212, 59 So. 543; State v. Pond, 93 Mo. 606, 6 S. W. 469; State v. Addington, 77 Mo. 110; People v. West, 106 N. Y. 293, 12 N. E. 610, 60 Am. Rep. 452; Motlow v. State, 125 Tenn. 547, 145 S. W. 177, L. R. A. 1916 F 177, appeal dismissed 239 U. S. 653, 60 L. Ed. 487, 36 Sup. Ct. 161 (mem. dec.); Ex parte Francis, 72 Tex. Cr. 304, 165 S. W. 147.

V.

79 United States. McCray United States, 195 U. S. 27, 49 L. Ed. 78, 24 Sup. Ct. 769; Booth v. State of Illinois, 184 U. S. 425, 46 L. Ed. 623, 22 Sup. Ct. 425, aff'g 186 Ill. 43, 57 N. E. 798, 50 L. R. A. 762, 78 Am. St. Rep. 229; Powell v. Pennsylvania, 127 U. S. 678, 32 L. Ed. 253, 8 Sup. Ct. 992, aff'g 114 Pa. St. 265, 7 Atl. 913, 60 Am. Rep. 350; Mugler v. Kansas, 123 U. S. 623, 31 L. Ed. 205, 8 Sup. Ct. 273.

Arizona. Gherma v. State, 16 Ariz. 344, 146 Pac. 494, Ann. Cas. 1916 D 94.

Colorado. Martin v. People, Colo., 168 Pac. 1171.

Florida. Harper v. Galloway, 58 Fla. 255, 51 So. 226, 26 L. R. A. (N. S.) 794, 19 Ann. Cas. 235.

Indiana. Hedderich v. State, 101

§ 37. Partial invalidity. If a statute contains valid and invalid provisions, the former will be enforced and the latter disregarded, if the invalid portions may be severed, and it does not appear that the statute would not have been enacted without them, or that such a course will cause results not intended by the legislature. But this Ind. 564, 1 N. E. 47, 51 Am. Rep. 768; Johns v. State, 78 Ind. 332, 41 Am. Rep. 577.

Kentucky. Com. v. Hodges, 137 Ky. 233, 125 S. W. 689.

Massachusetts. Com. v. Colton, 8 Gray 488.

Michigan. People v. Worden Grocer Co., 118 Mich. 604, 77 N. W. 315. Minnesota. State v. Moilen, 140 Minn. 112, 167 N. W. 345, 1 A. L. R. 331.

Missouri. Fleming v. Wengler, 269. Mo. 366, 190 S. W. 875; State v. Merchants' Exchange of St. Louis, 269 Mo. 346, 190 S. W. 903, Ann. Cas. 1917 E 871, aff'd 248 U. S. 365, 63 L. Ed. 300, 39 Sup. Ct. 114; State v. Pond, 93 Mo. 606, 6 S. W. 469; State v. Addington, 77 Mo. 110.

Nebraska. State v. Heldenbrand, 62 Neb. 136, 87 N. W. 25, 89 Am. St. Rep. 743; Davis v. State, 51 Neb. 301, 70 N. W. 984.

New York. People v. West, 106 N. Y. 293, 12 N. E. 610, 60 Am. Rep. 452; People v. Albertson, 55 N. Y. 50.

Oregon. Fouts v. Hood River, 46 Ore. 492, 81 Pac. 370, 1 L. R. A. (N. S.) 483, 7 Ann. Cas. 1160.

Pennsylvania. Com. v. Keary, 198 Pa. 500, 48 Atl. 472; Powell v. Com., 114 Pa. St. 265, 7 Atl. 913, 60 Am. Rep. 350, aff'd 127 U. S. 678, 32 L. Ed. 252, 8 Sup. Ct. 992, 1257.

Rhode Island. State v. Foster, 22 R. I. 163, 46 Atl. 833, 50 L. R. A. 339. Tennessee. Motlow v. State, 125 Tenn. 547, 145 S. W. 177, L. R. A. 1916 F 177, appeal dismissed 239 U. S. 653, 60 L. Ed. 487, 36 Sup. Ct. 161 (mem. dec.).

Texas. Ex parte Francis, 72 Tex. Cr. 304, 165 S. W. 147.

Utah. State v. Holden, 14 Utah, 71, 46 Pac. 756, 37 L. R. A. 103. West Virginia. State V. Woodward, 68 W. Va. 66, 69 S. E. 385, 30 L. R. A. (N. S.) 1004.

Whether a statute is or is not a reasonable one, Hedderich v. State, 101 Ind. 564, 1 N. E. 47, 51 Am. Rep. 768; Schultz v. State, 89 Neb. 34, 130 N. W. 972, 33 L. R. A. (N. S.) 403, Ann. Cas. 1912 C 495; and whether it does or does not unjustly deprive a citizen of natural rights, Hedderich v. State, 101 Ind. 564, 1 N. E. 47, 51 Am. Rep. 768; are questions for the legislature and not for the courts. A court cannot declare a statute unconstitutional and void solely on the ground of unjust or oppressive provisions or because it is supposed to violate natural, social or political rights of the citizen unless such injustice is prohibited or such rights are guaranteed or protected by the constitution. State v. Gerhardt, 145 Ind. 439, 44 N. E. 469, 33 L. R. A. 313; State v. Peel Splint Coal Co., 36 W. Va. 802, 15 S. E. 1000, 17 L. R. A. 385.

80 United States. Adair v. United States, 208 U. S. 161, 52 L. Ed. 436, 28 Sup. Ct. 277, 13 Ann. Cas. 764, rev'g 152 Fed. 737; United States v. United States Brewers' Ass'n, 239 Fed. 163.

Arizona. Gherma v. State, 16 Ariz. 344, 146 Pac. 494, Ann. Cas. 1916 D 94.

Florida. State v. Philips, 70 Fla. 340, 70 So. 367, Ann. Cas. 1918 A 138; Douglas v. Smith, 66 Fla. 460,

nor

cannot be done where it would violate the legislative intent,81 unless the part which is constitutional and the part which is unconstitutional are capable of separation, so that each may be read by itself,82

63 So. 844; Stinson v. State, 63 Fla. 42, 58 So. 722; Harper v. Galloway, 58 Fla. 255, 51 So. 226, 26 L. R. A. (N. S.) 794, 19 Ann. Cas. 235.

Illinois. People v. Joyce, 246 Ill. 124, 92 N. E. 607, 20 Ann. Cas. 472; Noel v. People, 187 Ill. 587, 58 N. E. 616, 52 L. R. A. 287, 79 Am. St. Rep. 238; People v. Illinois State Reformatory, 148 Ill. 413, 36 N. E. 76, 23 L. R. A. 139.

Indiana. State v. Gerhardt, 145 Ind. 439, 44 N. E. 469, 33 L. R. A. 313.

Iowa. State v. Santee, 111 Iowa 1, 82 N. W. 445, 53 L. R. A. 763, 82 Am. St. Rep. 489.

Kentucky. Com. v. International Harvester Co., 131 Ky. 551, 115 S. W. 703, 133 Am. St. Rep. 256.

Maine. State v. Peabody, 103 Me. 327, 69 Atl. 273.

Maryland. Agricultural Soc. of Montgomery County v. State, 130 Md. 474, 101 Atl. 139.

Missouri. State v. Pond, 93 Mo. 606, 6 S. W. 469; State v. Clarke, 54 Mo. 17.

New York. State Board of Pharmacy v. Bellinger, 138 App. Div. 12, 122 N. Y. Supp. 651.

North Dakota. State v. Bickford, 28 N. D. 36, 147 N. W. 407, Ann. Cas. 1916 D 140.

Ohio. Stevens v. State, 61 Ohio St. 597, 56 N. E. 478.

Vermont. State v. Peet, 80 Vt. 449, 68 Atl. 661, 14 L. R. A. (N. S.) 677, 130 Am. St. Rep. 998; State v. Abraham, 78 Vt. 53, 61 Atl. 766; State v. Scampini, 77 Vt. 92, 59 Atl. 201.

Virginia. Bertram v. Com., 108

Va. 902, 62 S. E. 969.

So a statute which in terms applies to acts committed before and after its enactment may be void as to those committed before, because ex post facto, and at the same time valid as to those committed after. Jaehne v. New York, 128 U. S. 189, 32 L. Ed. 398, 9 Sup. Ct. 70; People v. O'Neil, 109 N. Y. 251, 16 N. E. 68; Bittenhaus v. Johnston, 92 Wis. 588, 66 N. W. 805, 32 L. R. A. 380.

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V.

81 United States. McFarland American Sugar Refining Co., 241 U. S. 79, 60 L. Ed. 899, 36 Sup. Ct. 498, aff'g 229 Fed. 284; Baldwin v. Franks, 120 U. S. 678, 32 L. Ed. 766, 7 Sup. Ct. 656; Trade-Mark Cases, 100 U. S. 82, 25 L. Ed. 550. Georgia. Papworth v. State, 103 Ga. 36, 31 S. E. 402.

Illinois. Mathews v. People, 202 Ill. 389, 67 N. E. 28, 63 L. R. A. 73, 95 Am. St. Rep. 241.

Iowa. State v. Santee, 111 Iowa 1, 82 N. W. 445, 53 L. R. A. 763, 82 Am. St. Rep. 489.

Maine. State v. Peabody, 103 Me. 327, 69 Atl. 273.

Maryland. Agricultural Soc. of Montgomery County v. State, 130 Md. 474, 101 Atl. 139.

Vermont. State v. Abraham, 78 Vt. 53, 61 Atl. 766.

And see cases cited in the preceding note.

82 Baldwin v. Franks, 120 U. S. 678, 32 L. Ed. 766, 7 Sup. Ct. 656; United States v. Reese, 92 U. S. 214, 23 L. Ed. 563; State v. Santee, 111 Iowa 1, 82 N. W. 445, 53 L. R. A. 763, 82 Am. St. Rep. 489, and other cases cited in the preceding notes.

§ 38. Form of statutes and requirements as to enactment. Of course, criminal laws must comply with constitutional provisions as to the form of statutes and the mode of enacting them, such as provisions that an act shall be passed by both houses of the legislature, that it shall be signed by the presiding officers of both houses, and that it shall be presented to the governor for signature, etc.,83 that all laws shall be in the English language, and that no act shall embrace more than one subject, which must be expressed in its title.85

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Iowa. State v. Forkner, 94 Iowa 1, 62 N. W. 772, 28 L. R. A. 206.

Kentucky. Com. v. Hodges, 137 Ky. 233, 215 S. W. 689; Stickrod v. Com., 86 Ky. 285, 5 S. W. 580.

Louisiana. State v. Lahiff, 144 La. 362, 80 So. 590; State v. Guidry, 142 La. 422, 76 So. 843; State v. Allen, 129 La. 733, 56 So. 655, Ann. Cas. 1913 B 454; Allopathic State Board of Medical Examiners v. Fowler, 50 La. Ann. 1358, 24 So. 809.

Maryland. State v. King, 124 Md. 491, 92 Atl. 1041.

Michigan. People v. Lyons, 197 Mich. 64, 163 N. W. 484.

Minnesota. State v. Brothers, 144 Minn. 337, 175 N. W. 685; State v. Kaercher, 141 Minn. 186, 169 N. W. 699; State v. Townley, 140 Minn. 413, 168 N. W. 591; State v. People's Ice Co., 124 Minn. 307, 144 N. W. 962.

Montana. State v. Hopkins, 54 Mont. 52, 166 Pac. 304, Ann. Cas. 1918 D 956; State v. McKinney, 29 Mont. 375, 74 Pac. 1095, 1 Ann. Cas. 579.

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