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unlawful, the means by which it is to be accomplished are altogether immaterial.66 The conspiracy is punishable under such circumstances even though the means to be used are lawful in themselves,67 and it is not even necessary that the means shall be agreed upon at the time.68 But if the object is not unlawful, unlawful means of accomplishing it must be contemplated.69 A conspiracy to do an act that is not unlawful by means that are not unlawful is never indictable, whatever the intent may be.70 This distinction is important in determining the sufficiency of indictments for conspiracy. In the first case the means need not be set out in the indictment, while in the second they must.71 Under some of the statutes, however, the object of

N. J. L. 341, 105 Atl. 796; State v.
Donaldson, 32 N. J. L. 151, 90 Am.
Dec. 649.

South Carolina. State v. Ameker, 73 S. C. 330, 53 S. E. 484.

Washington. State v. Stewart, 32 Wash. 103, 72 Pac. 1026.

England. Reg. v. Parnell, 14 Cox C. C. 508.

"A conspiracy to do an unlawful act by any means is an indictable offense, and so is a conspiracy to do any act by unlawful means. People v. Blumenberg, 271 Ill. 180, 110 N. E. 788.

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"A conspiracy for the attainment of an unlawful end is none the less a criminal offense because some of the means employed, though essentially dishonest, could not be made the subject of a criminal prosecution." Com. v. Stuart, 207 Mass. 563, 93 N. E. 825. 66 Illinois. Chicago, W. & V. Coal Co. v. People, 214 Ill. 421, 73 N. E. 770; Smith v. People, 25 Ill. 17, 76 Am. Dec. 780.

Maryland. Garland v. State, 112
Md. 83, 75 Atl. 631, 21 Ann. Cas. 28;
State v. Buchanan, 5 Har. & J. 317,
9 Am. Dec. 534.

Massachusetts. Com. v. Hunt, 4
Metc. 111, 38 Am. Dec. 346.
Michigan. People v. Richards, 1
Mich. 216, 51 Am. Dec. 75.

Pennsylvania. Com. v. McKisson,

8 Serg. & R. 420, 11 Am. Dec. 630. England. Rex v. Eccles, 1 Leach

C. C. 274.

67 See § 496, infra.

68 United States. Pierce v. United States, 252 U. S. 239, 64 L. Ed. 542, 40 Sup. Ct. 205, aff'g 245 Fed. 878; Frohwerk v. United States, 249 U. S. 204, 63 L. Ed. 560, 38 Sup. Ct. 249; Howenstine V. United States, 263 Fed. 1.

Illinois. People v. Blumenberg, 271
Ill. 180, 110 N. E. 788.

Maryland. Garland v. State, 112
Md. 83, 75 Atl. 631, 21 Ann. Cas. 28.
Rhode Island. State v. Bacon, 27
R. I. 252, 61 Atl. 653.
Wisconsin. State v. Crowley, 41
Wis. 271.
England.
Ald. 204.

Rex v. Gill, 2 Barn. &

69 Smith v. People, 25 Ill. 17, 76 Am. Dec. 780; People v. Richards, 1 Mich. 216, 51 Am. Dec. 75; Com. v. Eastman, 1 Cush. (Mass.) 189, 48 Am. Dec. 596; State v. Crowley, 41 Wis. 271. And see § 482, supra.

70 United States v. Bernstein, 267 Fed. 295; Com. v. Hunt, 4 Metc. (Mass.) 111, 38 Am. Dec. 346; State v Bacon, 27 R. I. 252, 61 Atl. 653.

71 United States. Proffitt v. United States, 264 Fed. 299; Jelke v. United States, 255 Fed. 264; Hedderly v. United States, 193 Fed. 561; United

the conspiracy must itself be unlawful,72 or criminal,73 and a conspiracy to do a lawful act by means which are unlawful or criminal is not punishable.

§ 489. Criminality of object. There are some cases in which it has been held that to render a conspiracy indictable there must be a combination to commit some act that is known as an offense at common law, or that has been declared an offense by statute, and that a conspiracy, therefore, to commit a mere private fraud or private trespass, is not criminal.74 And under some statutes the object of the conspiracy must itself be criminal.75 According to the weight of authority, however, it is not necessary that the object of the conspiracy be an offense against the criminal law for which an individual could be indicted or convicted, but it is sufficient if it is unlawful.76 So

States v. Moore, 173 Fed. 122; Thomas v. United States, 156 Fed. 897.

Illinois. People v. Blumenberg, 271 Ill. 180, 110 N. E. 788.

Iowa. State v. Grant, 86 Iowa 216, 53 N. W. 120.

Maryland. Garland v. State, 112 Md. 83, 75 Atl. 631, 21 Ann. Cas. 28. Rhode Island. State v. Bacon, 27 R. I. 252, 61 Atl. 653.

Virginia. Harris v. Com. 113 Va. 746, 73 S. E. 561, 38 L. R. A. (N. S.) 458, Ann. Cas. 1913 E 597.

Washington. State v. Erickson, 54 Wash. 472, 103 Pac. 796.

72 Lipschitz v. People, 25 Colo. 261, 53 Pac. 1111; Miller v. People, 22 Colo. 530, 45 Pac. 408.

73 Hinshaw v. State, 188 Ind. 147, 122 N. E. 418; King v. State, 86 Tex. Cr. 407, 216 S. W. 1091. And see Noble v. People, 67 Colo. 429, 180 Pac. 562; Lipschitz v. People, 25 Colo. 261, 53 Pac. 1111.

74 Com. v. Prins, 9 Gray (Mass.) 127 (but see Com. v. Warren, 6 Mass. 74); Alderman v. People, 4 Mich. 414, 69 Am. Dec. 321 (but see People v. Richards, 1 Mich. 216, 51 Am. Dec. 75); State v. Straw, 42 N. H. 393; State v. Rickey, 9 N. J. L. 293 (disapproved in State v. Norton, 23 N. J.

L. 44, and State v. Donaldson, 32 N. J. L. 151, 90 Am. Dec. 649). And see Rex v. Turner, 13 East 228 (disapproved in Reg. v. Rowlands, 5 Cox C. C. 436, 490, per Lord Campbell; and in Mifflin v. Com., 5 Watts & S. (Pa.) 461, 463, per Chief Justice Gibson); Rex v. Pywell, 1 Starkie 402. 75 Hinshaw v. State, 188 Ind. 147, 122 N. E. 418.

In Texas the statute provides that the agreement must be to commit an offense of the grade of felony. King v. State, 86 Tex. Cr. 407, 216 S. W. 1091.

In Lipschitz v. People, 25 Colo. 261, it is said that under the Colorado statute it would seem that the unlawful act must be a crime. See also Noble v. People, 67 Colo. 429, 180 Pac. 562.

76 United States. Callan v. Wilson, 127 U. S. 540, 32 L. Ed. 223, 8 Sup. Ct. 1301.

Illinois. People v. Curran, 286 Ill. 302, 121 N. E. 637, aff'g 207 Ill. App. 264; People v. Blumenberg, 271 Ill. 180, 110 N. E. 788; Chicago, W. & V. Coal Co. v. People, 214 Ill. 421, 73 N. E. 770; Smith v. People, 25 Ill. 17, 76 Am. Dec. 780.

Iowa. State v. Hardin, 144 Iowa

there may be an indictable conspiracy to do acts which, by reason of the combination, have a tendency to injure the public," or to injure, oppress or wrongfully prejudice individuals,78 or to do various acts involving sexual immorality,79 although the completed act would not be a crime. But the term "unlawful," as here used, does not include every act which violates the right of a private individual, and for which the law affords a civil remedy.80 And many acts may be said. to be unlawful which would not be the subject of a criminal conspiracy.81

§ 490. Conspiracy to do what it would be lawful for individual to do. Some courts have held that "what a person may lawfully do a number of persons may unite with him in doing without rendering themselves liable to the charge of conspiracy, provided the means employed be not unlawful.'' 82 But according to the weight of au

264, 120 N. W. 470, 138 Am. St. Rep. 292.

Maryland. Garland v. State, 112 Md. 83, 75 Atl. 631, 21 Ann. Cas. 28; Lanasa v. State, 109 Md. 602, 71 Atl. 1058; State v. Buchanan, 5 Har. & J. 317, 9 Am. Dec. 534.

Massachusetts. Com. v. Waterman, 122 Mass. 43; Com. v. Hunt, 4 Metc. 111, 38 Am. Dec. 346.

Missouri. State v. Dalton & Fay, 134 Mo. App. 517, 114 S. W. 1132.

New Jersey. State v. Bienstock, 78 N. J. L. 256, 73 Atl. 530; State v. Donaldson, 32 N. J. L. 151, 90 Am. Dec. 649.

Rhode Island. State v. Bacon, 27 R. I. 252, 61 Atl. 653.

South Carolina. State v. Davis, 88 S. C. 229, 70 S. E. 811, 34 L. R. A. (N. S.) 295; State v. Ameker, 73 S. C. 330, 53 S. E. 484.

Utah. State v. Blake, 36 Utah 605, 105 Pac. 910.

Vermont. State v. Stewart, 59 Vt. 273, 9 Atl. 559, 59 Am. Rep. 710.

Washington. State v. Erickson, 54 Wash. 472, 103 Pac. 796.

Wisconsin. Aikens v. State, 113 Wis. 419, 89 N. W. 1135, aff'd 195

U. S. 194, 49 L. Ed. 154, 25 Sup. Ct. 3; State v. Huegin, 110 Wis. 189, 85 N. W. 1046, 62 L. R. A. 700.

77 See § 494, infra. 78 See § 495, infra. 79 See § 502, infra.

80 Chicago, W. & V. Coal Co. v. People, 214 Ill. 421, 73 N. E. 770; Smith v. People, 25 Ill. 17, 76 Am. Dec. 780; Com. v. Hunt, 4 Metc. (Mass.) 111, 38 Am. Dec. 346; State v. Donaldson, 32 N. J. L. 151, 90 Am. Dec. 649.

81 State v. Glidden, 55 Conn. 46, 8 Atl. 890, 3 Am. St. Rep. 23.

82 State v. Eastern Coal Co., 29 R. I. 254, 70 Atl. 1, 132 Am. St. Rep. 817, 17 Ann. Cas. 96. And see Clemmitt v. Watson, 14 Ind. App. 38, 42 N. E. 367; Vegelahan v. Guntner, 167 Mass. 92, 44 N. E. 1077, 35 L. R. A. 722, 57 Am. St. Rep. 443; Bohn Mfg. Co. v. Hollis, 54 Minn. 223, 55 N. W. 1119, 21 L. R. A. 337, 40 Am. St. Rep. 319; Lindsay & Co. v. Montana Federation of Labor, 37 Mont. 264, 96 Pac. 127, 18 L. R. A. (N. S.) 707, 127 Am. St. Rep. 722; National Protective Ass'n of Steam Fitters & Helpers v. Cummings, 170 N. Y. 315,

thority there may be an indictable conspiracy to accomplish an act which an individual would be free to do and which would not be indictable if done by him.83 So a conspiracy to procure the escape of a lunatic from an asylum for the criminal insane,84 or a convict from prison,85 may be a crime, although it would not be a crime for such a person to himself escape. Similarly, a conspiracy to refrain from giving custom to a shop may be made a crime, although an individual would be free to refrain from patronizing it.86 And there are many other cases in which it may be an offense to conspire to do an act when the completed act would not itself be a crime.87

§ 491. Distinction between conspiracy and object. The conspiracy to commit a crime and the commission of such crime are separate and distinct offenses.88 A prosecution for one will not bar a prosecution

63 N. E. 369, 58 L. R. A. 135, 88 Am. St. Rep. 648.

An act which is lawful for one person does not become unlawful merely because a number are engaged with him in doing it. State v. Eastern Coal Co., 29 R. I. 254, 70 Atl. 1, 132 Am. St. Rep. 817, 17 Ann. Cas. 96.

83 State v. Rowley, 12 Conn. 101; Franklin Union v. People, 220 Ill. 355, 77 N. E. 176, 4 L. R. A. (N. S.) 1001, 110 Am. St. Rep. 248; State v. Bienstock, 78 N. J. L. 56, 73 Atl. 530; People v. Knott, 187 N. Y. App. Div. 604, 176 N. Y. Supp. 321.

Generally, "where an additional power or enhanced ability to accomplish an injurious purpose arises by virtue of the confederation and concert of action, an element of criminal conspiracy is thereby introduced which will render sufficiently criminal either the means or the purpose, otherwise merely unlawful, to sustain a conviction, although the means or the end were not such as are indictable if performed by a single individual." State v. Dalton, 134 Mo. App. 517, 114 S. W. 1132.

It is competent for the legislature to make criminal a conspiracy to ac

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V.

88 United States. Frohwerk United States, 249 U. S. 204, 63 L. Ed. 560, 38 Sup. Ct. 249; Goldman v. United States, 245 U. S. 474, 62 L. Ed. 410, 38 Sup. Ct. 166; United States v. Rabinowich, 238 U. S. 78, 59 L. Ed. 1211, 35 Sup. Ct. 683; Howenstine v. United States, 263 Fed. 1; Kelley v. United States, 258 Fed. 392, certiorari denied 249 U. S. 616, 63 L. Ed. 803, 39 Sup. Ct. 391; United States v. Downey, 257 Fed. 364; United States v. Stilson, 254 Fed. 120, aff'd 250 U. S. 583, 63 L. Ed. 1154, 40 Sup. Ct. 28; Thomas v. United States, 156 Fed. 897.

Connecticut. Fimara v. Garner, 86 Conn. 434, 85 Atl. 670.

Illinois. People v. Robertson, 284

for the other.89 And the legislature may provide for punishing the conspiracy more severely than the completed offense,90 or allow a longer period for its prosecution than for the prosecution of the intended crime.91

The fact that a statute expressly provides for the punishment of persons who aid and abet the commission of a particular offense does not prevent the punishment of such persons for a conspiracy to commit such offense.92 And a person may be prosecuted for being a party to a conspiracy to commit a crime which he could not himself commit.93

Whether a conspiracy is merged in the completed offense has been considered in a previous section.94

§ 492. Failure to accomplish object, impossible object. A conspiracy is punishable though it fails of its object and the contemplated crime is never accomplished, regardless of whether or not an overt act is required.95 The insufficiency of the means intended to be

Ill. 620, 120 N. E. 539, aff'g 210 Ill. App. 234; People v. Darr, 255 Ill. 456, 99 N. E. 651.

Iowa. State v. Crofford, 133 Iowa 478, 110 N. W. 921.

Minnesota. State v. Townley, 142 Minn. 326, 171 N. W. 930.

Mississippi. King v. State, 123 Miss. 532, 86 So. 339; Isaacs v. State, 48 Miss. 234; Laura v. State, 26 Miss. 174.

89 See § 16, supra.

90 United States v. Stevenson, 215 U. S. 200, 54 L. Ed. 157, 30 Sup. Ct. 37; United States v. Clark, 164 Fed. 75; Thomas v. United States, 156 Fed. 897.

91 United States v. Ravinowich, 238 U. S. 78, 59 L. Ed. 1211, 35 Sup. Ct. 683.

92 United States v. Shevlin, 212 Fed. 343.

93 See § 510, infra.

94 See § 16, supra.

95 United States. Schenck V. United States, 249 U. S. 47, 63 L. Ed. 470, 38 Sup. Ct. 247; Goldman v. United States, 245 U. S. 474, 62 L.

Ed. 410, 38 Sup. Ct. 166; United States v. Rabinowich, 238 U. S. 78, 59 L. Ed. 1211, 35 Sup. Ct. 683; Williamson v. United States, 207 U. S. 425, 52 L. Ed. 278, 28 Sup. Ct. 163; United States v. Ault, 263 Fed. 800; United States v. Downey, 257 Fed. 364; Billingsley v. United States, 249 Fed. 331 (aff'g 242 Fed. 330), certiorari denied 247 U. S. 523, 62 L. Ed. 1247, 38 Sup. Ct. 583; Steigman v. United States, 220 Fed. 63; United States v. Newton, 52 Fed. 275; United States v. Cole, 5 McLean 513, Fed. Cas. No. 14,832.

Alabama. Thompson v. State, 106 Ala. 67, 17 So. 512.

California. People v. Cory, 26 Cal. App. 735, 148 Pac. 532.

Connecticut. Fimara v. Garner, 86 Conn. 434, 85 Atl. 670.

Illinois. People v. Robertson, 284 Ill. 620, 120 N. E. 539, aff'g 210 Ill. App. 234; People v. Buckminster, 282 Ill. 177, 118 N. E. 497, aff'g 207 Ill. App. 230; People v. Forster, 280 Ill. 486, 117 N. E. 761, aff 'g 204 Ill. App. 338.

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