intimately connected with every stage of advancement from the time the Roman Empire began to wear out; it was the nucleus which survived its fall, around which the surging waves of invasion raged in vain, and which immediately began the work of reconstruction.

SECTION XII.

THE CHRISTIAN ERA.

4- By some chronological confusion the new era has been made to begin four years before the appearance of the founder of Christianity. When Augustus had settled the whole empire he ordered the temple of Janus to be closed and a census taken of all its inhabitants, which numbered one hundred and twenty millions. On this occasion Jesus Christ was born.

10- A Roman army under Varus was defeated and cut to pieces in Germany. It was the severest defeat the Romans had suffered since the overthrow and death of Crassus, by the Parthians, sixty-three years before. 14- The Emperor Augustus died and was succeeded by his step-son, Tiberius.

29 Jesus Christ was crucified by Pontius Pilate, Roman governor of Judea, at the solicitation, and on the accusation, of the leading Jews.

37-Tiberius died and was succeeded by Caligula. The commencement of the reign of Tiberius was wise and moderate, but he soon became violent and cruel. Caligula was a still greater monster of wickedness. 40-Growing weary of his cruelty he was assassinated by

one of his officers, and his uncle, Claudius, was raised to the throne. He was of feeble intellect and became the tool of infamous favorites. He was poisoned by order of his wife, Agrippina.

54- Nero, the son of Agrippina by a former husband, was made emperor at seventeen years of age. He exceeded

all description in folly, extravagance and crime. His violence and barbarity fell generally on the patricians and members of his court, but he was esteemed by the common people, as were most of the emperors, who spent vast sums on theatres and spectacles for their amusement. The two bases of the empire were the populace and the army. The emperor was terrible and tyrannical chiefly to the patricians, while the army made him formidable to the provinces and the barbarians. A conflagration which some attributed to the orders. 64-of Nero lasted nine days and destroyed the greater part of Rome. Nero cast the blame on the Christians, who had become numerous, and raised a horrible persecution against them.

66 — The Jews rebelled and defied the Roman Empire. 68-Nero was dethroned by the Roman senate and army, and committed suicide to avoid punishment for his crimes.

69-Three emperors, Galba, Otho and Vitellius, were placed on the throne in succession, but rebellions were raised against them and all were put to death. Vespasian, then besieging Jerusalem, was proclaimed emperor by his army at the desire of the rulers of the eastern provinces, and, in the same year, overcame all opposition and commenced the first reign since Augustus that was free from disgraceful profligacy and public crime. 70-Titus, the son of Vespasian, captured and destroyed Jerusalem. Vespasian, during a reign of ten years, restored order and prosperity to Rome and the empire, but not without great labor and danger.

79-Titus succeeded as emperor, and was remarkable for his clemency and care for his subjects. During his reign occurred the most fearful eruption of the volcano Vesuvius on record. Herculaneum and Pompeii, two wealthy and flourishing cities, were destroyed, being

buried by the ashes. Pliny, an eminent writer, was suffocated while observing the eruption.

81-Titus died, to the great grief and loss of mankind, and was succeeded by his brother, Domitian, who was one of the most infamous rulers that ever desolated the earth. He raised a violent persecution against the Christians for refusing to adore his statues and worship him as a god. Among the victims was his own cousin, Clemens, who had embraced Christianity. He 96 was assassinated by his wife and officers in self-defense, and the senate proclaimed Nerva, a native of Crete, emperor. He was remarkable for his lenity and all the gentle virtues. He was followed, after a reign of two 98-years, by Trajan, whom he had adopted as his colleague and successor, who is said to have been the greatest and most deserving person of his time. He was, by birth, a Spaniard, was wise and successful as a warrior and statesman, and extremely noble as a man. He bridged the Danube and the Euphrates rivers and conquered both the Germans and Parthians on the north and east of the empire. A stain on his memory was the persecution of the Christians.

117 - He was succeeded by Adrian, in whose reign all the Roman laws, or annual edicts of the prætors, were compiled into one body, and law assumed the dignity of a science. He promoted literature, but continued the persecution of the Christians. A rebellion of the 139-Jews was punished with merciless severity. He was followed by Antoninus Pius, who suspended all persecution of Christians, promoted the best interests of all parts of the empire, and introduced, during a prosperous reign of twenty-two years, the most important reforms into every part of the government. 161-Marcus Aurelius, called the Philosopher, succeeded. He carried on a successful war with the Germans, and made the welfare of his subjects his special care, but

was seduced, by the pagan philosophers, into a persecution of the Christians. Having discovered his error he stopped it, toward the close of his reign. Com180-modus, his son, inherited the purple. He also inherited a vicious and cruel disposition, and received a demoralizing education from his mother. He was a monster of vice and cruelty. He was assassinated in 192 his bed by his own family and guards to save their lives. Pertinax reigned three months, but, attempting to restrain the license of the soldiery, he was murdered by them. The soldiers in Rome then proclaimed that the empire was for sale, and a rich merchant, Didius, bought it from them and reigned in Rome two months, 193 when he was also slain by the army. Septimus Severus, an able general, seized the purple which he secured against many rivals, and retained for eighteen years. His vigor alone prevented general anarchy, but he was systematically cruel.

211 Caracalla, his son, succeeded. He was a bloody and atrocious tyrant, supported on the throne only by his soldiers, whose aid he secured by large pay. He was 217 murdered by the commander of his guards, Macrinus, who succeeded in acquiring his place, but was soon 218 murdered by the soldiers. They raised Heliogabalus,

a young Syrian priest of fourteen years of age, through the assurance of his female relatives that he was the son of Caracalla, to the purple. He is described as the most cruel and infamous of all the Roman emperors. 222 After four years of horrible crime, he was slain in a mutiny of his guard and his body thrown into the Tiber. Alexander Severus, succeeded. He was apparently a secret admirer of Christianity and a model 235 prince. He was murdered by Maximin, a Thracian peasant, who had, by his valor, risen to high command in the army, who seized the reins of power. He was successful in war, but his severity provoked mutiny in

238 various parts of the empire, and he was slain by his own soldiers. Gordian succeeded, a heroic youth of a

noble family. He was successful in war, but was mur244dered by his own prime minister, Philip, an Arabian,

249

who became emperor. He favored the Christians, and reigned five years. In his reign, the thousandth year of the foundation of Rome was celebrated by public games. He was slain in a revolt by Decius, the general of his army, who occupied the throne. He raised a most violent storm of persecution against the Christians, who were despoiled of their goods and driven to caves and deserts. From this time is dated the sect of 250 — anchorites, or hermits, who imagined they could acquire superior holiness by abandoning society and devoting themselves to meditation and prayer. The idea appears to have been derived from the Persian Magians, who, in this century restored the ancient dynasty and religion of the Persians, or Parsees, in Persia. During the political and social disorganization that soon commenced the anchorites became numerous, and the system was extensively prevalent for a thousand years to the great injury of active and true Christianity.

251 Decius was slain in a battle with the Goths, who had invaded the empire, and Gallus became emperor.

253 He was put to death by Emilianus, who attempted to seize the reins of government, but the army elected Valerian, governor of Gaul. The empire was invaded by the Goths on the north and the Persians under their king, Sapor, on the east. From this time, it had to 259-fight for its life. Valerian was defeated by Sapor and remained nine years in captivity, Gallienus, his son, becoming emperor. He was extremely incompetent and a multitude of rival claimants for the supreme authority arose in all directions. They were called the "Thirty Tyrants." One of them, Odenatus, king of Palmyra, in the Syrian desert, defeated Sapor, and