3. By two or more nouns or pronouns which are the objects of an active-transitive verb; as, "I saw James and John studying.' Here and connects James and John grammatically; but logically, the two propositions, I saw James studying, and I saw John studying.

4. By two or more adjectives belonging to the same noun; as, "Howard was a generous and philanthropic man. Here and connects generous and philanthropic grammatically; but logically, the two propositions, Howard was a generous man, and Howard was a philanthropic man.

5. By two or more adverbs qualifying the same verb; as, "The trial was conducted nobly and justly.' Here and connects, grammatically, nobly and justly; but logically, the two propositions, the trial was conducted nobly, and the trial was conducted justly.

REMARK. The logical connection requires the whole proposition to be repeated as many times as there are verbs, nouns, adjectives, or adverbs of like construction in the same sentence.

SENTENCES.

222. "A sentence consists of one proposition, or two or more united."

§ 223. A simple sentence consists of only one proposition; as, 66 John spells."

§ 224. A compound sentence consists of two or more propositions; as, "James studies, and Edward labors."

$ 225. "The propositions of which a compound sentence consists, are called clauses or members."

§ 226. "The members of a compound sentence are either dependent or independent."

§ 227. A clause is independent when it makes complete sense by itself; dependent when its sense is com

FIRST COURSE.

What is a sentence? What is a simple sentence? A compound sentence? What are the propositions called which make up a compound sentence? How are the members divided? When is a clause independent? When dependent?

SECOND COURSE.

How many times does a logical connection require a sentence to be repeated?

plete only in connection with another clause; as, "Virtue will triumph, though she sometimes yields to vice." Here the former clause is independent; the latter dependent.

§ 228. "That member of a compound sentence on which the other members depend, is the leading clause; its subject, the leading subject; and its verb, the leading verb."

§ 229. The leading verb is either in the indicative or imperative mode.

EXERCISES IN ANALYZING.

1. "The poor mariner contemplated the horrors of his situation with a look of absolute despair."

This is a simple and independent sentence. The logical subject is, The poor mariner. The logical predicate is, contemplated the horrors of his situation with a look of absolute despair. The grammatical subject is mariner. This is modified by the and poor. The grammatical predicate is contemplated. This is modified by horrors and by look. Horrors is modified by the and by of situation. Look is modified by a and by of despair. Situation is modified by his; and despair by absolute.

2. "Sylla having departed to combat the public enemy, Marius reëntered Italy; where, forming an army of many thousands of discontented and factious persons, he placed himself at their head, and marched directly for Rome."Greene's Hist. Italy.

This is a compound sentence, consisting of three clauses, into which it may be resolved thus:

(1) Marius reëntered Italy, which is the leading clause. (2) Sylla having departed to combat the public enemy.

(3) Where, forming an army of many thousands of discontented and factious persons, he placed himself at their head, and marched directly for Rome.

FIRST COURSE.

What is the leading clause? In what mode is the leading verb ?

In the preceding clauses, the logical predicates have been italicised.

In the 1st clause, Marius is both the grammatical and logical subject. The grammatical predicate is reëntered, which is modified by Italy.

It is

The 2nd clause contains a nominative case absolute. attached to the leading clause without any connective, and in order to denote the time when Marius reëntered Italy. Though it does not express a direct affirmation, it is properly a distinct clause of itself, and is equivalent to the clause when Sylla had departed to combat the public enemy. Sylla is the grammatical subject. Having departed is the grammatical predicate, and is modified by to combat, which is modified by enemy. Enemy is modified by the and public.

The 3rd clause is connected to the leading clause by the connective adverb where, which relates to Italy, and modifies forming, placed, and marched, by denoting the place in which these several actions were performed. The grammatical subject is he, i. e., Marius, which is modified by forming, and this by army; the latter by an and of thousands, and thousands by many and of persons; and this, again, by discontented and factious, which are connected by and. Placed and marched are the grammatical predicate, which is compound. Placed is modified by himself and at head; head by their. Marched is modified by directly and for Rome; and connects placed and marched.

RULES OF SYNTAX.

RULE I.

§ 230. The definite article belongs to nouns of the singular or plural number; as, "The bird sings ;" "The birds sing."

REM. 1. When the definite article is prefixed to an adjective without a noun expressed, the adjective sometimes acquires the meaning of a noun, and should be parsed as such; "The very frame of spirit proper for being diverted with

as,

What is rule first?

FIRST COURSE.

SECOND COURSE.

When does an adjective acquire the meaning of a noun ?

the laughable in objects, is so different from that which is necessary for philosophizing on them."-Camp. Rhet.

REM. 2. In many cases, when the article comes before an adjective without a noun expressed, it belongs to some noun implied; as, "The animal (world,) and vegetable world;" “The man of firm purpose and decision of character turns neither to the right (hand) nor left (hand) in the career of duty;" "He was a good (man) and a just man.

REM. 3. The definite article is sometimes prefixed to adjectives or adverbs of the comparative or superlative degree, to make the expression more intensive; as, "The farther they proceeded, the greater appeared their alacrity."-Dr. Johnson. James walked the fastest of the whole company."

REM. 4. The article the sometimes supplies the place of a possessive pronoun; as, "Men who have not bowed the (their) He looks him full in the face;" i. e.,

knee to Baal."-Bible.

his face.

REM. 5. The article should not be prefixed to proper nouns, unless they are plural and denote a collection of individuals, "The United States," or to nouns of virtue, vice, passion, art or science; nor before nouns whose meaning is sufficiently known without them.

as,

of

REM. 6. When an adjective is put after the noun on account any clause depending upon it, the same article is repeated; as, They are not the men in the nation the most difficult to be replaced."

REM. 7. "When an adjective immediately precedes a noun, the article is prefixed to the adjective, that its power may extend over that also;" as,

"The private path, the secret acts of men,

If noble, far the noblest of their lives."

The exceptions to this rule are such adjectives as, all, many, both, such, what, and such as are preceded by the adverbs too, as, so, how, or the sensible properties of matter, as,

SECOND COURSE.

Give instances where articles, coming before adjectives, belong to nouns implied. Why is the definite article sometimes prefixed to adjectives or adverbs in the comparative and superlative degree? Does the article the ever supply the place of a possessive pronoun? Before what nouns should the article the not be prefixed? When is the same article repeated? When an adjective precedes a noun, why is the article prefixed to it?

hard, soft, etc.; as, All the people ran to the former;" "Like many an other poor wretch, I now suffer all the ill consequences of so foolish an indulgence."

REM. 8. If the adjective comes after the noun, the article usually precedes the noun; as, "A man improvident of the future;" "Julian the apostate."

REM. 9. When nouns are closely connected in construction, the article is generally prefixed to only one of them; as, "The waves and winds were terrific."

REM. 10. When nouns are not closely connected in construction, the article should be repeated before each noun; as, "The keen discerner of character does not base his opinion upon the act of a moment, but the general tenor of a man's conduct." It would be improper to omit the article before the word general.

REM. 11. When it is desirable to express a number of nouns in succession with uncommon emphasis, the article is placed before each of them; as, I cannot specify the day, the hour,

and the minute when my friend arrived."

REM. 12. The is sometimes prefixed to the relative which in the sacred Scriptures, to render it more emphatic; as, “In the which ye also walked sometime, when ye lived in them." Col. iii. 7.

REM. 13. If adjectives that are connected describe things individually different, but expressed by the same term, the article should be repeated before all of them, because the repetition of the article implies the repetition of the noun; as, "The white and the black sheep."

REM. 14. If the adjectives that are connected, describe the same thing or things, the article should not be repeated, because where the article is not repeated, the adjectives belongto the same nouns; as, "The high and mighty states." Here the word high and mighty belong to states. (The

SECOND COURSE.

If the adjective comes after the noun, where is the article? When nouns are closely allied in construction, is the article prefixed to each? When they are not closely connected, should the article be prefixed to each? Under what circumstances may the article be repeated before a number of nouns in succession? Why is the sometimes prefixed to the relative which? Why should the article be prefixed to adjectives that are connected, describing things individually different, but expressed by the same common term? If the adjectives describe the same thing, why should not the article be repeated?