manoeuvring to escape near direct firing, and so to prolong their existence and power of aggression. The result in England has been a suspension of opinion in reference to the effectiveness of practicable iron armor, and more than this, the questioning by some authorities whether any effective armoring is not in the nature of the case an impracticable thing. In this country, the same degree of distrust on this question has not arisen; and the greater confidence existing must be traced in no inconsiderable degree to the fact of the general choice here of models for armored vessels, and plans of armoring that, for the purposes intended and the tonnage and capacity given, have unquestionably, nay, demonstrably, proved more decided successes and steps of advance in practical naval warfare, than have any or all the armored ships thus far produced by France and England. There can be little doubt that, for their tonnage, the Roanoke and Dunderberg will prove quite as formidable antagonists as any of the Royal Oak and Prince Consort class of English (similar) plated wooden ships; nor that the Puritan and Dictator, with their 10-inch armor and four feet of oak, but practically backed also with the entire remaining deck of 40 ft. breadth, its own thickness of the sides only rising above water, will be almost absolutely invulnerable; while it must, at the least, be admitted that, when completed, these will be beyond comparison the most formidable war vessels in the world. The enduring capacities of even the smallest-size Monitors are proved abundantly by the absolute freedom from penetration and the slight actual damage with which seven of them came out from the terrific hail of projectiles poured upon them for more than an hour in Charleston harbor; and the assurance is given that even this class can be practically much further strengthened, to meet future assaults.

Still, these smaller vessels are valuable only for their purposes, and within a certain sphere of service. Mr. McKay justly urges that, while they are well fitted for defending or operating in harbors, they cannot command the high seas, take the necessary part in great naval engagements, break blockades on distant coasts, nor protect our commerce in remote parts of the world; and he anticipates that in a contest with large iron-clad frigates, they would be terribly handled, and would probably be run down. He calls attention to the fact that the French will soon have a fleet of 16 iron-cased frigates fit for foreign service and an aggressive warfare, the English 16 such frigates and 2 iron-cased corvettes, suitable for the like purposes. It may still be answered that, if the true policy of this country be anticipated to continue a defensive one, then her war navy is increasing in strength in the right direction. But Mr. McKay argues that, to be compelled to keep on the defensive is in itself a defeat; and yet, that for such purpose only, in case of

a war with any of the great naval powers, it is absolutely necessary that we have at least 20 large, powerful iron-cased frigates, that can be used also as rams, of at least 12 knots speed, capable of carrying ten days' coal, and in draught not exceeeding 24 feet. These ships, he thinks, should be of wood, and copper bottomed, while, besides these, there would be need of 20 to 30 armored shell-proof corvettes, of high speed and light draught, and carrying each 10 to 12 guns.

Perhaps the practical conclusions following from the whole subject, in reference to the improvements now appearing desirable, both in the line of ordnance and of armored vessels, cannot better be expressed than in the lan guage of Mr. Holley, in the "Atlantic Monthly," for January, 1863,-in an article from which, as well as from that by the same author in the "National Almanac," for 1863, some of the facts and deductions given in this paper, and not separately credited, have been drawnwhen he says: "The direction of immediate improvement in ordnance for iron-clad warfare appears to be in the abandonment of cast iron, except as a barrel to be strengthened by steel: binding an inner tube with low-steel hoops, having a successively increasing initial tension: and the use of spherical shot at excessive velo cities by means of high charges of powder in bores of moderate diameters [rather, it would appear on this point, in bores of the largest possible diameters for which the due strength of metal to bear the proportional firing charge can be secured]. The rifling of some guns is important, not so much to secure range or ne curacy, as to fire elongated shells through armor. The direction of improvement [large?] iron-clad vessels, appears to be in the concentration of armor," with shot-proof decks and bulkheads, as already described; "bizh speed without great increase of weight of the driving parts, by means of improved engines and boilers, and high pressure; the production of tenacious iron in large, thick, homogène us masses; and the rapid manoeuvring of heavy ordnance by machinery."

Finally, even if it should not appear altogether apposite to our subject, it is certainy apposite to man, who is still greater in himsel than all the wonderful things he can do, ast more important to himself than all that he cat accomplish in his Titanic play with matter and forces, to add from a moral point of view the reflection that, to accept the struggle now going on between the means of offensive and of defensive warfare as an end, or as anything indeed more than a passing disturbance or et vulsion running through the human mind and over the face of society, would be to pata wholly new interpretation henceforward the meaning and intention of all scientis vancement, and upon that more authoritat ve presage of nearly nineteen centuries since. veyed in the words "On earth peace, good wi toward men."

NAVY, U. S., OPERATIONS OF. The operations of the navy during the year 1862 comprise the history of several distinct squadrons. 1. The North Atlantic squadron, guarding the Virginia and North Carolina coasts, was in charge of Rear Admiral L. M. Goldsborough until Sept. 5, when he was relieved at his own request by Acting Rear Admiral S. P. Lee. 2. The South Atlantic squadron, blockading the coasts of South Carolina and Georgia_and_the N. E. coast of Florida, was commanded by Rear Admiral S. F. Dupont. 3. The Gulf squadron was divided in February into the Eastern Gulf squadron successively under Flag-Officer McKean, and Acting Rear Admirals Lardner and Bailey, extending from Cape Canaveral, on the E. coast of Florida, to Pensacola; and 4, the Western Gulf squadron, under Rear Admiral Farragut. 5. The Western flotilla, on the Mississippi, was until May 9 under command of Rear Admiral A. H. Foote, who was relieved by Commodore C. H. Davis; and since October 15 has been commanded by Acting Rear Admiral D. D. Porter. 6. The Potomac flotilla was under Commodore Harwood. 7. The James river flotilla was under Commodore Wilkes.

1. North Atlantic Squadron.-Early in January a joint naval and military expedition for operation in the waters of North Carolina sail. ed from Hampton Roads under the command of Flag-Officer L. M. Goldsborough, and General Burnside. (See ARMY OPERATIONS). The naval force, consisting of 17 light-draught vessels with an armament of 48 guns, most of them of heavy caliber, arrived at Hatteras Inlet, January 13. The battle of Roanoke Island took place on the 7th and 8th of February, the fleet commencing it by a spirited attack on the Confederate batteries and vessels, and covering the landing of the troops on the second day. At the close of the engagement the Confederate naval forces retired to Elizabeth City, pursued by the Federal flotilla under Commander S. O. Rowan, who discovered his enemy on the morning of the 10th, drawn up under a battery of four guns. Disregarding their fire, Commander Rowan pushed steadily on until within three fourths of a mile, when he delivered a volley and dashed ahead. The Confederates fled before this unexpected onset; the battery was demolished; and their whole fleet was captured or destroyed.

Flag-Officer Goldsborough having been recalled to Hampton Roads, the naval forces which accompanied Gen. Burnside to Newbern were placed under Commander Rowan. The joint expedition reached the place of landing at Slocum's Creek March 12th, and in the battle of the 14th and the occupation of Washington, N. C., on the 21st, the navy took an active part. The engagement between the Monitor and Merrimac in Hampton Roads, March 8, was narrated in the "Annual Cyclopædia" for 1861. At the battle of West Point, May 7, the gunboats Wachusett, Maratanza, and Sebago were assigned to assist Gen. Franklin.

On the 8th of May the iron-clad vessels Monitor, Naugatuck, and four others shelled Sewall's Point near Norfolk, mainly with the view of ascertaining the practicability of landing troops there; the Merrimac or Virginia steamed out to engage them, but neither side seemed anxious to open an engagement, and both soon after retired. On the 10th Norfolk surrendered to Gen. Wool, and Commodore Tatnall, then in command of the Merrimac, proceeded to lighten his ship with the intention of taking her up the James river; but after she had been so much lightened as to be rendered unfit for action, the pilots declared there was not sufficient water to carry her beyond the Jamestown Flats, up to which point the shore on both sides was in possession of the Federal army. In this dilemma she was run ashore on Craney Island and set on fire, and on the morning of the 11th blew up.

The James river was now open for Com modore Goldsborough's gunboats, and on the 15th Commander John Rodgers was ordered to proceed with the Galena, Monitor, Aroostook, Port Royal, and Naugatuck, to Richmond, and shell the city to a surrender. They met with no artificial obstructions until they reached Ward's or Drury's Bluff, about 8 miles from Richmond, where they encountered a heavy battery and two separate barriers formed of piles and steamboats and sail vessels. The banks of the river were lined with sharpshooters who effectually prevented any attempt to remove the obstructions. The Galena ran within about 600 yards of the battery, and opened fire; the Monitor attempted to pass ahead of her, but was obliged to retire several hundred yards as her guns could not be elevated enough for effective service: the wooden vessels were ordered to keep in the The Naugatuck was disabled by the bursting of her 100-lb. Parrott gun, and after an engagement of over three hours the flotilla, having exhausted their ammunition, were forced to retire without having produced much effect upon the battery. The Monitor was struck several times, but entirely uninjured. The Galena was not so fortunate; thirteen shot penetrated her iron sides, starting the knees, planks, and timbers, and killing several men by the splinters. One shell exploded in the steerage, but most of the balls, after breaking through the iron, stuck in the wood. Commander Morris, of the Port Royal, was wounded, and 13 men were killed and 11 wounded on the Galena, and 2 wounded on the Naugatuck.

rear.

On November 23 the gunboat Ellis, Lieut. W. P. Cushing, captured the town of Onslow on New River Inlet, N. C., destroying extensive salt works, and securing three schooners and 10 whale boats. On the way back, when 3 miles from the mouth of the river, the Ellis ran aground and the enemy opened fire on her. Despairing of saving the gunboat, Lieut. Cushing transferred the crew to one of his prizes, and blew up the Ellis on the 24th.

2. South Atlantic Squadron.-The beginning of the year found Com. Dupont's squadron actively employed in examining the waters and islands on the South Carolina and Georgia coasts, preparatory to their military occupation. On the first of January a combined attack was made by land and water upon a Confederate post at Port Royal ferry, S. C., the naval forces, consisting of 3 gunboats, 2 tugs, and 4 armed boats from the Wabash, being under the direction of Commander C. R. P. Rodgers. (See ARMY OPERATIONS.)

On January 27 a fleet of two gunboats, 4 armed steamers, and 2 armed launches under Fleet Captain C. H. Davis, accompanied by 2,400 men on transports commanded by Brig.Gen. Wright, made a reconnoissance of Little Tybee river and the adjacent waters, with a view of preparing for the cutting off communication between Fort Pulaski and Savannah and the ultimate capture of the fort. While on this duty they were attacked by 5 Confederate vessels under Commodore Tatnall, which they repulsed after a half hour's fight, two of the enemy being driven back to Savannah, and the others running under the guns of the fort..

An expedition under Flag-Officer Dupont and Brig.-Gen. Wright, designed for the reoccupation of the principal points on the E. coast of Florida, sailed from Port Royal on the 28th of February, and captured Fort Clinch, St. Mary's, and Fernandina, March 2 and 3; Brunswick, Ga., March 7; Jacksonville, Fla., and St. Augustine, March 12, meeting with no resistance at any of these points. (See ARMY OPERATIONS.)

The capture of Fort Pulaski, in which the naval forces participated, being a purely military operation, has been described elsewhere.

On April 29 Lieutenant Rhind, with the steamer E. B. Hale, captured and destroyed a battery near the junction of the Dawho, Pow Pow, and South Edisto rivers.

On May 13 the Confederate steam tug Planter, an armed despatch and transportation steamer attached to the engineer department at Charleston under Brig.-Gen. Ripley, was brought out by her pilot, Robert Small, a very intelligent slave, and surrendered to the blockading squadron. She had on board 8 men, 5 women, and 3 children, all negroes, and was armed with a 32-pounder pivot gun, and a 24pounder howitzer, besides which she had 4 large guns, one of them belonging to Fort Sumter, which she was to have transported that morning to the new fort on the middle ground. At 4 o'clock in the morning, while the captain was on shore, she left her wharf with Palmetto and Confederate flags flying, passed the forts, saluting as usual by blowing her steam whistle, and after getting out of reach of the last gun, hauled down the Confederate flags and hoisted a white one. The steamer, from her excellent machinery and light draught, proved a valuable acquisition to the blockaders.

On the 19th, Flag-Officer Dupont, having been led to believe, chiefly by the information given by Robert Small, that the Confederates were erecting batteries on Stono Inlet, caused a reconnoissance to be made which established the truth of the report. The inlet was immediately occupied by the gunboats and an important base thus secured for future operations against Charleston.

The military forces sent to occupy Jacksonville, Fla., after its capture in March were afterward withdrawn, and a battery was planted by the Confederates on St. John's river, some distance below the town, which caused considerable annoyance to the gunboats employed on the inside blockade of the river. Commander Steedman and Gen. Brannan accordingly moved on the 30th of September with a joint naval and land force, silenced and occupied the battery, capturing 9 guns, and afterward ascended the river as far as Lake Beresford, a distance of 230 miles, and captured a transport steamer.

The same officers had charge of a joint expedition, October 21-23, to destroy the railroad bridges near Pocotaligo, S. C. (See ARMY OPERATIONS.)

3. Gulf Squadron and Eastern Gulf Squadron.-In the early part of January, Flag-Officer McKeon sent the steamer Hatteras, Commander Emmons, to Cedar Keys, where about the 10th she captured or destroyed a quantity of artillery and military stores, and several schooners, the place being an important depot of the enemy.

In the latter part of March Commander Stellwagen of the Mercedita arrived off. A¡¡ »lachicola with that vessel and the Sagamore. and organized a boat expedition, the immediate object of which was the capture of a number of vessels understood to be at or above that city. The place, however, had already be evacuated by the Confederate troops, and the expedition met with no resistance. The in habitants received the sailors favorably and raised the United States flag. Several rese's were brought out and others were destroyed

On the night of April 6th a boat expediti from the bark Pursuit, under Acting Master Elnathan Lewis, surprised and captured at . Andrew's the Confederate steamer Florica, ví 500 tons, with 200 bales of cotton on board and brought her safely out.

On the 4th of October a boat expedition fr the steamer Somerset proceeded to the m land near Cedar Keys for the purpose of d stroying some salt works, but was fired from a house on which a white flag was ty and compelled to return without thoroug accomplishing their purpose. On the 6% stronger force, consisting of 4 boats from the Somerset and 4 from the gunboat Talerza landed at the same place, completing the destruction and dispersing a small guerilla force.

4. Western Gulf Squadron-Captain D. G. Farragut sailed from Hampton Roads in the

U. S. steamer Hartford on the 3d of February, to assume the duties of flag-officer of the Western Gulf blockading squadron. In addition to the ordinary duties of the blockade, he was specially charged with the reduction of the defences guarding the approaches to New Orleans. "There will be attached to your squadron," said the Secretary of the Navy in his letter of instructions, "a fleet of bomb vessels, and armed steamers enough to manage them, all under command of Commander D. D. Porter, who will be directed to report to you. *** When these formidable mortars arrive, and you are completely ready, you will collect such vessels as can be spared from the blockade and proceed up the Mississippi river, and reduce the defences which guard the approaches to New Orleans, when you will appear off that city and take possession of it under the guns of your squadron, and hoist the American flag therein, keeping possession until troops can be sent to you. If the Mississippi expedition from Cairo shall not have descended the river, you will take advantage of the panic to push a strong force up the river to take all their defences in the rear."

Captain Farragut arrived at Ship Island on the 20th, having been detained for some time at Key West, and immediately began to organize his squadron for the important duty which had been assigned to him. There are two routes by which New Orleans may be approached by water, one through Lake Borgne and Lake Pontchartrain, and the other directly up the Mississippi river; but the former, on account of the shallowness of the water, is impracticable for any but vessels of very light draft. The Confederates had consequently devoted their labors chiefly to the fortification of the Mississippi. Some 75 miles below the city, and about 25 miles from the "passes" or mouths of the river, they had possession of two strong works constructed many years before by the U. S. Government, Fort St. Philip on the left, or N. bank, and Fort Jackson on the right. Their united armament was 126 guns, many of them of the very largest caliber. Starting opposite Fort Jackson and extending to a point a quarter of a mile below Fort St. Philip, a stout chain cable was stretched across the stream (here 700 yards wide), supported by a raft of logs and 8 hulks securely moored. Adjoining Fort Jackson was a water battery. Under cover of the forts was a fleet of 13 gunboats, the powerful iron-clad battery Louisiana, and the iron-clad ram Manassas, the naval forces being commanded by Commodore G. N. Hollins. Between New Orleans and the forts several earthworks, well armed, commanded the channel. "Our only fear," said the press of New Orleans of April 5, "is that the Northern invaders may not appear. We have made such extensive preparations to receive them that it were vexatious if their invincible armada escapes the fate we have in store for it."

To reduce these formidable defences, Captain

Farragut was able to collect the following vessels: steam sloops Hartford, 24 guns (flag ship), Richmond, 26, Pensacola, 24, Brooklyn, 24, Mississippi, 12, Iroquois, 9, Oneida, 9, sailing sloop of war Portsmouth, 17, gunboats Varuna, 12, Cayuga, 6, and Winona, Katahdin, Itasca, Kineo, Wissahickon, Pinola, Kennebeck, and Sciota, 4 each. The frigate Colorado, 48, could not pass over the bar, and the entrance of some of the other large ships was only effected with the expenditure of much time and labor. The mortar fleet comprised 20 schooners, each mounting one large mortar and 2 small guns. They were accompanied by the steamers Harriet Lane, 4, the flag ship of Commander Porter, Miami, 7, Westfield 6, Clifton, 6, and Owasco, 5. Some of these were merely armed tugs, intended principally to serve the purpose of towing the bomb vessels into position. Including the coast-survey steamer Sachem, the number of vessels under Captain Farragut's command was therefore 46, and their aggregate armament, counting boat howitzers placed in the main tops, was about 300 guns and mortars. There were no iron-clads in the fleet.

Nearly three weeks were consumed in getting all the ships of the squadron over the bars at the mouths of the Mississippi. Captain Farragut found the depth considerably less than it had been laid down on the official maps; no doubt for the reason that the daily passing of large ships, before the port was blockaded, had kept the channel open. On the 28th of March Fleet Captain H. H. Bell made a reconnoissance with two gunboats from the head of the passes up toward the forts. He found the left bank quite clear of trees and bushes, but on the west side a thick wood extended about 4 miles below Fort Jackson. By the 8th of April the Mississippi and Pensacola were over the bar, and the mortar boats were moving up toward their appointed stations. On the 13th a detachment from the coast survey party set out under protection of the Owasco, and spent 3 days in making a minute boat survey of the river and banks, much of the time under fire, and marking the positions which the mortar vessels were to occupy. On the 18th two divisions of Commander Porter's flotilla were moored under the lee of the wood on the right bank of the river, screened from observation by the thick growth of trees interwoven with vines; the masts and rigging were dressed off with bushes, which were renewed as often as they were blown away. The head vessel was 2,850 yards from Fort Jackson and 3,680 from Fort St. Philip. The remaining division, composed of 6 vessels, was stationed under the opposite bank, the nearest being 3,680 yards from Fort Jackson. There was nothing on this side to screen them from observation, but their hulls were covered with reeds and willows.

The bombardment opened on the 18th, the mortar vessels taking the lead, and the gunboats