3, 1843. At present there is no national bankrupt law in force.

[Clause 5.] "To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and fix the Standard of Weights and Measures."

§ 249. The power to coin money, and fix the standard of weights and measures, was vested in the Congress by the Articles of Confederation. The same power is conferred upon Congress by the Constitution, with the additional right to regulate the value of foreign coin. These powers are granted to Congress for the convenience of commerce, in order that uniform regulations may exist in all the States. Money is coined at the mint of the United States.

$250. The officers of the mint are, the director, who has the control and management of the mint, the superintendence of the persons employed therein, and the general regulation of the business of the branches; the treasurer, who keeps all moneys and accounts of the mint, and has charge of all bullion and coin in the mint; the assayer, who assays all metals used in coinage; the melter and refiner, who executes all operations which are necessary, in order to form ingots of standard silver and gold, suitable for the chief coiner, who forms the coins, according to the law, from the silver and gold ingots and the copper planchets, legally delivered to him for the purpose; the engraver, who prepares and engraves the legal devices and inscriptions, and the dies used in the coinage of the mint.

§ 251. Prior to the establishment of a mint under the Constitution, there was no national institution in which coins were struck by the United States. In 1792, a mint establishment for the United States was authorized by Congress for the purpose of national coinage, to be carried.

on at the seat of government for the time being The seat of government at that time was Philadelphia; but since its removal to Washington, the mint has been continued at Philadelphia in virtue of special acts of Congress.

§ 252. It is lawful for any person to take to the mint uncoined gold or silver, in order to have it coined, and the metal so brought is there assayed and coined as speedily as may be after the receipt thereof, and, if of the standard of the United States, free of expense to the person by whom it has been taken. But the treasurer of the mint is not obliged to receive, for the purpose of refining and coining, any deposite of less value than one hundred dollars, nor any metal so base as to be unsuitable for minting.

§ 253. Although the mint of the United States is located at Philadelphia, branch mints have been established at Charlotte, North Carolina; at Dahlonega, Georgia; at New Orleans, Louisiana; at San Francisco, California; and an assay, melting, and refining office at New York.

§ 254. Congress has passed several acts declaring the value at which foreign coins shall be estimated, but has not, as yet, enacted any law fixing the standard of weights and measures. The States have legislated for themselves upon that subject, or have continued in use the standards existing at the time of the adoption of the federal Constitution. The weights and measures used in the States are generally the same as those of England.

[Clause 6.] "To provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the Securities and current Coin of the United States."

§ 255. This power is necessary, in order to carry into effect successfully the provisions of the preceding clause,

aince it would be vain to coin money without having authority to punish those who counterfeit it. Congress has passed many severe laws against those who falsify, lighten, or counterfeit the coin of the United States; and any officer of the mint who shall fraudulently debase the fineness or diminish the weight of any of the gold or silver coins of the United States, is liable to heavy fine and imprisonment.

[Clause 7.] "To establish Post Offices and post Roads."

$256. Posts appear to have been established for the first time in modern Europe in 1479, by Louis XI. of France. They were originally intended to serve merely for the conveyance of public despatches and of persons travelling by authority of government. Subsequently, however, private individuals were allowed to avail themselves of them for forwarding letters and despatches. The post-office was not established in England till the seventeenth century. Postmasters had, indeed, existed in more ancient times, but their business was confined to the furnishing of post-horses to persons who were desirous of travelling expeditiously, and to the despatching of extraordinary packets upon special occasions.

§ 257. In 1635, Charles I. erected a letter-office for England and Scotland; but it extended only to a few of the principal roads, and did not succeed. During the civil wars, Edward Prideaux, attorney-general for the common.. wealth, instituted a post-office for the weekly conveyance of letters to all parts of the kingdom. In 1657, the postoffice was established nearly on its present footing.

§ 258. The regularity and precision necessary to the satisfactory workings of a post-office in the United States, could scarcely be obtained otherwise than by the agency of the general government, for the mails would have to be

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conveyed through the various States, each independent of the other, and each, therefore, having the power to interpose difficulties leading to delay and obstruction.

§ 259. The authority on this subject, granted to Congress by the Articles of Confederation, (Art. 9,) did not include the establishing of post-roads, but extended only to the establishing and regulating of post-offices from one State to another, (leaving the post-offices within a State to the control of the State,) and it was confined to the exacting of such postage as might be requisite to defray expenses.

§ 260. The mails are carried by private individuals, in pursuance of contracts made with them by the PostmasterGeneral in behalf of the government. He advertises in certain newspapers that he will receive proposals, and whoever proposes to carry the mail for the least sum, upon giving satisfactory security, receives the contract. A report of all such contracts is made annually to Congress. § 261. The post-office establishment of the United States is under the direction of the Postmaster-General, who is authorized by act of Congress to establish post-offices, appoint certain of the postinasters, provide for the carriage of the mail on post-roads, and superintend and direct all the business of the post-office department. He and all other persons employed in the general post-office, and in the care, custody, and conveyance of the mail, are re quired, previous to entering upon the discharge of their duties, to take and subscribe an oath or affirmation faithfully to perform all the duties required of them, and abstain from every thing forbidden by the laws in relation to the post-office and post-roads. A heavy penalty is imposed on any postmaster who shall unlawfully detain in his office any letter or paper, or give a preference to any

letter or paper over another by forwarding the one and retaining the other.

§ 262. By an act of Congress of June 22, 1854, the Postmaster-General may allow to the deputy postmasters throughout the United States the following rates of commissions, to be paid to them on the amount of postages received at their respective offices in each quarter of the year, and in due proportion for any period less than a quarter, viz.: on a sum received not exceeding $100, sixty per cent.; but any postmaster at whose office the mail is to arrive regularly between the hours of nine o'clock at night and five o'clock in the morning, may be allowed seventy per cent. on the first $100; on a sum over $100, and not exceeding $400, fifty per cent.; over $400, and not exceeding $2400, forty per cent.; over $2400, fifteen per cent. On the amount of postages on letters or packets received at a distributing office for distribution, twelve and a half per cent.

But by an act of March 3, 1825, all allowances, commissions, and emoluments are not to exceed $2000 for a year.

§ 263. The deputy postmasters for post-offices at which the commissions amount to one thousand dollars or upwards, are appointed by the President, with the advice and consent of the Senate, for the term of four years, unless sooner removed by the President. Other postmasters are appointed by the Postmaster-General.

§ 264. Certain officers connected with the government have the privilege of franking, which is the right to send and receive letters or packages by mail without paying postage thereon. This privilege is possessed by the President, ex-presidents, and the widows of deceased ex-presidents; by members of Congress and delegates from the