hydroxylamine, NH,OH . HCl, in alcohol, in a flask provided with an inverted condenser, adding the requisite quantity of zinc oxide, and boiling the liquid until it is quite clear. Upon cooling, crystals of the compound are deposited. These crystals are very permanent in their behaviour towards solvents; they resist organic solvents completely, and are only slightly attacked by water. They are rendered much more unstable by rise of temperature, and explode most violently when an attempt is made to fuse them. If, however, they are carefully warmed up to 120° in a flask connected with a series of U-tubes, they dissociate regularly, a gas being rapidly evolved, which condenses to a liquid, mainly in the first U-tube. This liquid is very rich in hydroxylamine, but owing to the dehydrating action of the zinc chloride, contains small quantities of decomposition products. This destructive action of the zinc chloride may be altogether avoided, however, if another base capable of replacing the hydroxylamine in the compound is present during the distillation. The base which M. Crismer finds most effective is

aniline. About ten grams of the zinc salt are added to twenty cubic centimetres of freshly distilled aniline, and the mixture is submitted to distillation under reduced pressure. Under these circumstances a liquid of very high refractive power distils over. In a few minutes this liquid commences to crystallize in large colourless lamellæ, and upon surrounding the receiver with icecold water the whole completely crystallizes. These crystals, when washed with a little ether to remove a trace of aniline which is mechanically carried over, are found to correspond to the formula NH2OH. They are identical in all respects with those described by M. Lobry de Bruyn. They dissolve in all proportions in water, and the solution possesses the ordinary properties of aqueous hydroxylamine. The crystals are very deliquescent, attracting moisture with the utmost avidity. They melt at the temperature of the hand. The compound of zinc chloride and aniline, which remains in the distillation flask, may be obtained from solution in boiling alcohol in minute snowwhite crystals.

THE second method by which anhydrous hydroxylamine may be prepared consists in passing dry ammonia gas into an emulsion of the zinc compound ZnCl, . 2NH2OH in absolute ether. As soon as the first bubbles of ammonia enter the flask an energetic reaction occurs, the zinc salt swells up rapidly, and eventually the whole of the hydroxylamine is liberated, and is dissolved by the ether. The clear ethereal solution is subsequently decanted, and the ether removed by distillation in vacuo, when white crystals of hydroxylamine remain in the vessel in which the distillation is carried out. The only precaution necessary in adopting this mode of preparation is to employ a tolerably large proportion of ether, as hydroxylamine does not dissolve in that liquid to a very large extent. M. Crismer finds it most convenient to perform the experiment in an apparatus so constructed that the extraction by ether of the product of the action of ammonia is continuous.

THE additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens during the past week include three Rhesus Monkeys (Macacus rhesus 8 & 9 ) from India, presented respectively by Dr. Hewetson, Mr. H. Godfrey, and Mr. W. A. Morgan; a Puma (Felis concolor) from Sante Fe, Argentine Republic, presented by Mr. Thos. Bowers; a Musanga Paradoxure (Paradoxurus musanga) from the Indian Archipelago, presented by Mr. J. Watson; a Grey Ichneumon (Herpestes griseus) from India, presented by Mr. W. Needham; an Azara's Agouti (Dasyprocta azare) from British Guiana, presented by Mr. R. Scott-Brass; a Northern Mocking Bird (Mimus polyglottus) from North America, presented by Major N. Gosselin; two Brown Hyænas (Hyæna brunnea) from South Africa, a Two-toed Sloth (Cholopus didactylus) from Demerara, purchased.

OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. CAPTURE OF COMETS BY PLANETS.-During the last two planets in changing the orbits of comets which pass near them, or three years several astronomers have studied the action of

and a considerable amount of interest has been aroused in this problem. Prof. H. A. Newton, in the American Journal of Science for September and December, establishes a number of propositions relative to the perturbations by planets which lead to the annexation of comets. Some of the results obtained may be expressed as follows :-(1) If a comet passes in front of Jupiter, the kinetic energy of the comet is diminished; if it passes behind the planet, the kinetic energy of the comet is increased. (2) The greatest effect of perturbation of a planet moving in a circular orbit in shortening the periodic time of a comet originally moving in a parabola is obtained if the comet's original orbit actually intersects the planet's orbit at an angle of 45°, and if the comet is due first at the point of intersection, at the instant when the planet's distance therefrom is equal to the planet's distance from the sun multiplied by the ratio of the mass of the planet to the mass of the sun. (3) If in a given period of time 1,000,000,000 comets come in parabolic orbits nearer to the sun than Jupiter, 126 of them will have their orbits changed into ellipses with periodic times less than one-half that of Jupiter; 839 of them will have their orbits changed into ellipses with periodic times less than that of Jupiter; 1701 of them will have their orbits changed into ellipses with periodic times less than one and a half times that of Jupiter; and 2670 of them will have their orbits changed into ellipses with periodic times less than twice that of Jupiter. (4) Of the 839 comets which are reduced to have periodic times less than Jupiter's period, 203 will, after perturbation, have retrograde motions, and 639 will have direct motions. (5) Somewhat more than five times as many of these comets move in direct orbits inclined less than 30° to Jupiter's orbit as move in retrograde orbits inclined less than 30° to Jupiter's orbit. It may therefore be said that comets which are changed by the perturbing action of a planet from parabolic orbits of every possible inclination to the ecliptic into short period ellipses must, as a rule, move in orbits of moderate inclination, and with direct motions.

LAW OF LIMITING APERTURES.-The results of some interesting photometric experiments connected with the applica tion of the law of limiting apertures to small object-glas-es are given by Dr. E. J. Spitta in Monthly Notices R.A.S., November 1891. The apertures of six object-glasses were reduced to one-half and one-quarter respectively, and the intensity of a point at the focus of each was then photometrically tested. The numbers obtained were in neither case proportional to the square of the linear aperture of the object-glass, and they indicated that the outer zones do not contribute as much to the intensity of the image at the focus as they should do theo retically. Some photometric observations by Dr. Müller, of Potsdam, also show that the brilliancy of the focal image is only very slightly affected by blotting out the outer parts of his objectglass; the observed and computed intensities being very discordant until the diameter had been diminished to about onehalf. Dr. Spitta believes that the cause of the difference lies in the aplanatisation of the glasses used.

CONNAISSANCE DES TEMPS for 1893, and the extract from the one for 1892, containing information useful for mariners, have just been received from the Bureau des Longitudes. The arrangement appears to be the same as usual, and no comment as to its excellence is needed.

ORTHOGRAPHY OF GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES THE Council of the Royal Geographical Society have jus issued a circular letter, signed by Sir M. E. Grant Dut the President of the Society, on this important subject. The following are its principal passages :

In 1885 the Council, impressed with the necessity of endeavour ing to reduce the confusion existing in British maps with regar to the spelling of geographical names, in consequence of the variety of systems of orthography used by travellers and others to represent the sound of native place-names in different parts of the world, formally adopted the general principle which had been long used by many, and the recognition of which had bee steadily gaining ground, viz. that in writing geographical native

names vowels should have their Italian significance, and consonants that which they have in the English language.

The

This broad principle required elucidation in its details, and a system based upon it was consequently drawn up with the intention of representing the principal syllabic sounds. object aimed at was to provide a system which should be simple enough for any educated person to master with the minimum of trouble, and which at the same time would afford an approximation to the sound of a place-name such as a native might recognize. No attempt was made to represent the numberless delicate inflexions of sound and tone which belong to every language, often to different dialects of the same language. For it was felt not only that such a task would be impossible, but that an attempt to provide for such niceties would defeat the object.

The adoption by others of the system thus settled has been more general than the Council ventured to hope. The charts and maps issued by the Admiralty and War Office have been, since 1885, compiled and extensively revised in accordance with it. The Foreign and Colonial Offices have accepted it, and the latter has communicated with the colonies, requesting them to carry it out in respect to names of native origin. Even more important, however, than these adhesions is the recent action of the Government of the United States of America, which, after an exhaustive inquiry, has adopted a system in close conformity with that of the Royal Geographical Society, and has directed that the spelling of all names in their vast territories should, in cases where the orthography is at present doubtful, be settled authoritatively by a committee appointed for the purpose. The two great English-speaking nations are thus working in harmony.

The Council, by printing the rules in "Hints to Travellers," and by other means, have endeavoured to insure that all travellers connected with the Society should be made aware of them; but as it is possible that some bodies and persons interested in the question may still be in ignorance of their existence and general acceptance, they feel that the time has come to again publish them as widely as possible, and to take every means in their power to aid the progress of the reform.

To this end, and with a view to still closer uniformity in geographical nomenclature in revisions of editions of published maps, a gigantic task requiring many years to carry out, the Council have decided to take steps to commence tentatively indexes of a few regions, in which the place-names will be recorded in the accepted form.

RULES.

1. No change is made in the orthography of foreign names in Countries which use Roman letters: thus Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, &c., names will be spelt as by the respective nations.

2. Neither is change made in the spelling of such names in languages which are not written in Roman character as have become by long usage familiar to English readers: thus Calcutta, Catch, Celebes, Mecca, &c., will be retained in their present form.

3. The true sound of the word as locally pronounced will be taken as the basis of the spelling.

4. An approximation, however, to the sound is alone aimed at A system which would attempt to represent the more delicate inflexions of sound and accent would be so complicated as only to defeat itself. Those who desire a more accurate pronunciation of the written name must learn it on the spot by a study of local accent and peculiarities.

5. The broad features of the system are:

That vowels are pronounced as in Italian and consonants as in English.

Every letter is pronounced, and no redundant letters are introduced. When two vowels come together, each one is sounded, though the result, when spoken quickly, is sometimes scarcely to be distinguished from a single sound, as in ai,

au, ei.

(One accent only is used, the acute, to denote the syllable on which stress is laid. This is very important, as the sounds of many names are entirely altered by the misplacement of this * stress."

Indian names are accepted as spelt in Hunter's "Gazetteer of India," 1881.

has two separate sounds, the one hard as in the English word finger, the other as in singer. As these two sounds are rarely employed in the same locality, no attempt is made to distinguish between them.

p

As in English.

ph

As in loophole

th

stands both for its sound in thing, and as in The former is most common. should never be employed; qu (in quiver) is given as kru

When q has the sound of k as in quoit, it should be given by k.

As in English.

is always a consonant, as in yard, and therefore should never be used as a terminal, i or

e being substituted as the sound may require. Thus, not Mikindány, but not Kwaly, but English 2 The French, or as s in treasure Accents should not generally be used, but where there is a very decided emphatic syllable or stress, which affects the sound of the word, it should be marked by an acute

FIG. 2.-Composite photograph of corona, 1889.

The party consisted of Profs. H. S. Pritchett, Director of the Observatory, F. E. Nipher, and E. A. Engler, together with Prof. C. M. Charroppin, of the St. Louis University Observatory, and Prof. Señor Valle, of the National Observatory of Mexico. The spot fixed upon for observing the eclipse was a small

Report of the Washington University Eclipse Party.

equatorially_mounted, with magnifying powers from 50 to 400; the other a French instrument with an aperture of 3 inches, and an altitude and azimuth mounting.

Although the first contact was lost through the formation of a heavy bank of clouds, the sky near the sun soon afterwards became clear, and "the seeing was excellent and the image of was sharp and distinct." In all the six negatives

the sun

obtained the definition was found to be very good, but on account of the difference in the lengths of the exposures given to the several plates, some of them proved to be rather thin. The task of developing them was imposed upon Prof. Charroppin, who gives a brief, interesting account of the process of their development. The observations of the times of contact and the study of the corona were undertaken by Prof. Engler, with the aid of the French instrument. Although only two contacts were recorded (the second and the fourth), he made no attempt at the third, owing to the short space of time at his disposal for observing and sketching the corona. The drawing which he made is produced (together with the other photographs) in this report, and tallies, when compared with them, in nearly all respects, with the exception of the two equatorial streamers on the west side, that appear to extend further westward than those recorded in the photographs.

It is interesting to note in the illustrations the great similarity between the corona observed in this eclipse and that of the year 1878, in which year the sun-spot disturbances were at the minimum. Figs. 1 and 2 represent the corona of the year 1889, the former being a drawing by Prof. Engler, the same as the one previously mentioned, while the latter is the integrated result of the examination of all the photographic plates, and "does not represent the corona as seen by the eye, nor as shown on any one of the negatives, but is a combination of all that could be found in the negatives."

The next illustration (Fig. 3) is a sketch of the corona made by Mr. Lockyer during the eclipse of 1878 (NATURE, vol. xviii. p. 457), and when compared with the above figures fully bears out the idea that at the several periods throughout a sunspot cycle there corresponds in the corona a like period, which is apparent to us only in the changes of form undergone by the equatorial and polar streamers, and this only at the time of eclipses.

The following brief extracts, which we give in the observers' own words, will show how the descriptions of the appearance of the corona resembled one another in all the main points. With regard to the structure at the north and south poles, Mr. Lockyer says (NATURE, vol. xviii. p. 457) :

"I had a magnificent view of the corona with a power of 50 on my 3-inch Cooke, and saw exquisite structure at the north and south points. Curves of contrary flexure started thence, and turned over, and blended with the rest of the corona, which was entirely structureless and cloudlike; the filamentous tracery, which in India I observed till three minutes after totality, had indeed almost gone. Prof. Bass, however, tells me that by confining his attention to the same point for nearly the whole time of totality, the structure came out and seemed to pulsate like an aurora.'

Prof. Pritchett's account is almost the same, word for word, as may be seen from the following extract :"I was particularly struck," he says, "with the brilliant appearance in the telescope of the filaments at the north and south limbs of the sun. They seemed radial at the poles, but gradually bending over and merging into the equatorial streamers in passing from the pole to the equator. I could not resist the impression that these filaments pulsated."

From the above it will be seen that the appearances at the pole for both years were very similar; and with regard to the equatorial streamers also, their notes show that the characteristic features of each coincided in almost all particulars. Owing to the fact of the minimum spot period occurring at both eclipses, the above results strengthen very considerably the hypothesis Connecting the spot cycle with the corona.

In addition to Prof. Engler's drawing mentioned above, Señor Valle also made some eye observations of the coronal Streamers. The method he adopted was similar to that employed by Prof. Newton in 1878, and consisted in placing a screen in such a position that during totality the moon and the brighter corona were cut off. The photo-engraving of the drawing shows an extension of the equatorial streamers to about a distance of three solar diameters, while the polar regions were described as of a curved luminous filamentary contraction.

Before concluding, we must not forget to mention the admirable artotype reproductions, at the end of the report, of all the negatives: as they are arranged in the order of the times of exposure, they show well the progressive increase of detail on the outer part of the corona as the exposure was lengthened.

W.

SIMPLE PROOF OF EUCLID II. 9 AND 10. THE following proof of Euclid II., 9 and 10, believed to be new, due to Miss Hilda Hudson, was communicated to the London Mathematical Society at their last meeting.

AB is bisected in C and divided unequally in D either internally (II. 9) or externally (II. 10). It is required to prove that the sum of the squares on AD and DB is equal to twice the sum of the squares on AC and CD.

On AD, AC, CD, describe the squares Adef, acgh, CDKL, all on the same side of AB.

On FH, within the square AE, describe the square FHMN; this is equal to the square on CD.

Let NM, KL, produced if necessary, meet in P.
Then PE is a square equal to the square on AC.
And.PG is a square equal to the square on DB.

The sum of the squares on AD, DB is equal to the figures AE and PG, that is to AG, PE, FM, and CK, that is to twice the sum of AG, CK, that is to twice the sum of the squares on AC, CD.

SCIENTIFIC SERIALS.

American Meteorological Journal for November.-Prof. H. A. Hazen gives the results of three rather high balloon voyages in the United States, in which he took part. (1) June 25, 1886, at 7h. 50m. a.m., a dense cloud was entered at 1000 feet, which seemed like a dry fog. The temperature from the earth up to more than half-way through the cloud hardly varied a degree, but after that it rose rapidly. There was a region of marked dampness at 7000 feet. The temperature at starting was 61°3, and at 9640 feet it had fallen to 8°; time, 9h. 16m. (2) June 11, 1887, at 2h. 34m. p.m., temperature 90°6. At 15,080 feet, it had fallen to 40°; time, 6h. 18m. p.m. Great dryness was experienced in the upper strata. There were two rather sharply defined layers of dampness, at 7500 feet and at 12,000 feet. (3) August 13, 1887, at 3h. 35m. p.m., temperature 75° 8. At 6940 feet it was 53°3; time, 6h. 28m. p.m. The relative humidity fell to 8 per cent.-Meteorology at the French Association at Marseilles, by A. L. Rotch. Among the most interesting papers was one by M. Crova, upon the analysis of diffused light. Observations made at Montpellier at the zenith show the blue to be greatest in the early morning, and least about 2 p.m., and then increasing until towards evening. A cloudy sky also shows

a considerable amount of blue rays. M. Teisserenc de Bort explained the existence of a vertical barometric gradient, first noticed in mountain observations, but lately measured more exactly on the Eiffel Tower.-The zodiacal light as related to terrestrial temperature observations, by O. T. Sherman. Features of Hawaiian climate, by C. L. Lyons, in charge of the Weather Service there. The temperature averages for January are 69° to 71°, and in July and August 78° and 79°. The daily range is greater than is generally supposed, averaging 11° for the year, and some days over 20°. The maximum temperature is 89°, and the minimum 55°.-High-level meteorological observatories in France, by A. L. Rotch; and other articles of minor importance.

SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
LONDON.

Royal Society, December 17.-"The 'Ginger-beer Plant, and the Organisms composing it: a Contribution to the Study of Fermentation-yeasts and Bacteria." By H. Marshall Ward, Sc. D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Botany at the Forest School, Royal Indian Engineering College, Cooper's Hill.

The author has been engaged for some time in the investigation of a remarkable compound organism known to villagers as the "ginger-beer plant.'

It occurs as jelly-like, semi-transparent, yellowish-white masses, aggregated into brain-like clumps, or forming deposits at the bottom of the fermentations, and presents resemblances to the so-called Kephir grains of the Caucasus, with which, however, it is by no means identical.

He finds that it consists essentially of a symbiotic association of a specific Saccharomycete and a Schizomycete, but, as met with naturally, invariably has other species of yeasts, bacteria, and mould-fungi casually associated with these.

He has successfully undertaken the separation of the various forms, and groups them as follows:

(1) The essential organisms are a yeast, which turns out to be a new species allied to Saccharomyces ellipsoideus (Reess and Hansen), and which he proposes to call S. pyriformis ; and a bacterium, also new and of a new type, and named by him Bacterium vermiforme.

(2) Two other forms were met with in all the specimens (from various parts of the country and from America) examined -Mycoderma cerevisiae (Desm.) and Bacterium aceti (Kützing and Zopt).

(3) As foreign intruders, more or less commonly occurring in the various specimens examined, were the following::

a. A pink or rosy yeast-like form-Cryptococcus glutinis (Fresenius)?

B. A small white aërobian top-yeast, with peculiar characters, and not identified with any known form.

7. The ordinary beer-yeast-Saccharomyces cerevisia (Meyen and Hansen).

d. Three, or probably four, unknown yeasts of rare occur

7 and 0. Two-perhaps three-other Schizomycetes not identified.

1. A large yeast-like form which grows into a mycelium, and turns out to be Oidium lactis (Fresenius).

K. A common blue mould-Penicillium glaucum (Link). λ. A brown "Torula "-like form, which turns out to be Dematium pullulans (De Bary).

μ. One, or perhaps several, species of "Torula" of unknown origin and fates.

Saccharomyces pyriformis (n. sp.) is a remarkably anaerobian bottom-yeast, forming spores, and developing large quantities of carbon dioxide, but forming. little alcohol. It has also an aërobian form-veil form of Hansen-in which the rounded cells grow out into club-shaped or pyriform cells, whence the proposed specific name. It inverts cane sugar, and ferments the products; but it is unable to ferment milk sugar. It forms rounded, morula-like, white colonies in gelatine, and the author has separated pure cultures from these. He has also studied the development and germination of the spores, which are formed in 24 to 48 hours at suitable temperatures on porous earthenware blocks. They also develop on gelatine.

The specific Schizomycete (Bacterium vermiforme, n. sp.) has been very fully studied by the author. It occurs in the fermentations as rodlets or filaments, curved or straight, encased in a remarkably thick, firm, gelatinous sheath, and is pronouncedly anaerobic, so much so, that the best results are got by cultivating it in carbon dioxide under pressure.

The sheathed filaments are so like worms, that the name proposed for the species is appropriately derived from this character.

It will not grow on gelatine, and separation cultures had to be made in saccharine liquids by the dilution methods.

It grows best in solutions of beet-root, or of cane sugar, with relatively large quantities of nitrogenous organic matter-e.g. bouillon, asparagin- and tartaric acid. Good results were ob

tained with mixtures of Pasteur's solution and bouillon.

The author found that the bacterium into which the filaments subsequently break up can escape from its sheath and become free, in which state it divides rapidly, like ordinary bacteria. Eventually, all the forms-filaments, long rods, short rodletsbreak up into cocci. No spores have been observed. These changes are dependent especially on the nutritive medium, but are also affected by the gaseous environment and the temperature. The jelly-like clumps of the so-called "ginger-beer plant" are essentially composed of these sheathed and coiled Schizomycetes, entangling the cells of Saccharomyces pyriformis. But the fermentative actions of the Schizomycete on the saccharine medium are different when alone, from those exercised when associated with the yeast, or from those exerted by the latter alone.

This was proved by cultivating each separately, and also by cultivations in which, while each organism was submerged in the same fermentable medium, they were separated by permeable porcelain (Chamberland filters), through which neither could

pass.

The author has also reconstructed the "ginger-beer plant " by mixing pure cultures of the above two organisms; the Schizomycete entangled the yeast-cells in its gelatinous coils, and the synthesized compound organism behaved as the specimens not analyzed into their constituents. The symbiotic compound organism so closely resembles a lichen, in its morphological aspects, that it may be said to be a ferment-lichen.

Some very curious phenomena in connection with the formation of the gelatinous sheaths and the escape of the bacteria from them were observed in hanging-drop-cultures, and are figured and described by the author. The conditions for the development of the gelatinous sheaths-and therefore of the coherent brain-like masses of the Schizomycete-are a saccharine acid medium and absence of oxygen. The process occurs best in carbon dioxide: it is suppressed in bouillon, and in neutral solutions in hydrogen, though the organism grows in the free, non-sheathed, motile form under these conditions.

The behaviour of pure cultures of the bacteria in as complete a vacuum as could be produced by a good mercury pump, worked daily, and even several times a day, for several weeks, is also noteworthy. The development of the sheaths is apparently indefinitely postponed in vacuo, but the organism increased, and each time the pump was set going an appreciable quantity of carbon dioxide was obtained. In vacuum tubes the same gas was evolved, and eventually attained a pressure sufficient to burst some of the tubes. The quantity of carbon dioxide evolved daily by the action of the bacterium alone, however, is small compared with that disengaged when the organism is working in concert with the symbiotic yeast; in the latter case the pressure of the gas became so dangerous that the author had to abandon the use of sealed tubes.

The products of the fermentation due to the Schizomycete have not yet been fully determined in detail; lactic acid, or some allied compound, seems to be the chief result, but there are probably other bodies as well. The author considers that the bacterium removes from the sphere of action substances which, if accumulated, would exhibit the fermentative power of the yeast, hence the advantages of the symbiosis.

It

The pink yeast-like form proved to be very interesting. has nothing to do with the "ginger-beer plant" proper, though it was invariably met with as a foreign intruder in the specimens. The author identifies it with a form described by Hansen in 1879 ("Organismer i Öl og Ölurt," Copenhagen, 1879); unfortunately the original is in Danish, but the figures are so good that little doubt is entertained as to the identity. It is also probably the same as Fresenius's Cryptococcus glutinis in one of its forms. It is not a Saccharomycete, and does not ferment like a yeast; it is aërobian.