racter of the place has been described by George W. Curtis in his Homes of American Authors, and by F. B. Sanborn in his sketches of Emerson, Lowell, and Thoreau. It is a quiet region, inhabited chiefly by farmers and professional men, on the banks of the Concord River, and with Walden Pond and other small lakes near by.

Since 1878 the State prison for men, formerly at Charlestown, has been established in the western part of Concord, and about 800 of its present population are the convicts, officers, and employés connected with the prison.

The lighter cements set more quickly than the heavy ones, and the natural cements, of which Rosendale may be taken as a type, only bear in tension 40 to 70 lbs. per sq. in. In mixing the cement for use in concrete, the best proportion of water is such as will make the mortar only moist, so as barely to cohere; the proportion will be about 1 of water to 4 of cement, though English Portland may require a little more water. Sand is always mixed with the cement for the sake of economy and to prevent cracking; it lengthens the period of setting and likewise diminishes the strength, in the proportion of one-half for an equal mixture, to one-fourth for a mixture of four of sand to one of cement. Ordinarily, in building, the natural cements, such as go by the name of Rosendale in the market, are mixed with 1 to 1 part of sand, while parts of sand, the character of the work influencing the engineer in his decision of the ratio. The sand and cement are mixed together dry with a shovel, and the water afterwards added. This is to obtain a thorough intermixture which would otherwise be difficult on account of the weight of the sand being less than that of an equal quantity of the cement, and, therefore, tending to float on top of it. The sand should be in coarse grains of unequal size, "pit" being better than 'bar" sand, if well washed.

The best broken stone to use in the concrete is granite or basalt, or other hard rock, or brick-bats, of an irregular shape and not larger than a hen's egg, and free from dust. It is spread out upon a platform of boards. If gravel is likewise used, it should be placed at the bottom and the broken stone on top, and the layer should be from 8 to 12 in. thick. The mortar is then spread over it in the proportion, usually, of one-half to two-thirds the broken stone, or of the mixture with gravel. When gravel and broken stone are used together, the gravel should be about one-half the bulk of the broken stone. All the materials having been thus collected together, they are mixed with shovels and hoes working from the outside to the centre and back again twice, by which time, if skilfully done, each stone will be covered with mortar, and the mixture is ready for use. When put in its permanent place it should be well rammed, a good size of rammer being 4 ft. long, 8 in. in diameter at the foot, with a lifting handle, and shod with iron. It is let fall about six inches.-See BETON and AQUEDUCTS. (T. M. C.)

The town contains three churches-Unitarian and Trinitarian Congregationalist and Catholic-and two chapels, one Episcopalian. The Hillside Chapel," on the estate of Mr. Alcott, is used in the summer for the sessions of the "Concord School of Philosophy,' "Portland cement is mixed in the proportion of 2 to 3 which was opened in 1879, and in which lectures and conversations have been given by Emerson, Alcott, Dr. Jones, Dr. Harris, the late Prof. Peirce of Cambridge, Pres. McCosh of Princeton, Mrs. Julia Ward Howe, Dr. R. G. Hazard, Mrs. E. D. Cheney, and others of the Transcendental or the Hegelian schools in philosophy. The founder of this unique school (see ALCOTT) is Mr. A. Bronson Alcott of Connecticut, who has lived in Concord most of the time since 1840, and still flourishes there at a great age. His daughter, Miss Louisa Alcott, is also a resident of Concord, and so is Prof. W. T. Harris, the chief Hegelian teacher in the School of Philosophy. Several eminent American journalists -Frederick Hudson, William S. Robinson, Robert Carter, C. C. Hazewell, and F. B. Sanborn-have been residents of Concord, and Hon. George F. Hoar, Senator from Massachusetts, was born there, as were also his elder brother, E. R. Hoar, who was attorney-general in Gen. Grant's first administration, and William Whiting, who wrote elaborately in favor of Pres. Lincoln's right to emancipate the slaves under the warpowers of the Constitution. Concord was one of the centres of anti-slavery opinion for twenty years before emancipation, and had been still earlier a focus of the Transcendental movement in New England. See ALCOTT, EMERSON, and THOREAU. (F. B. S.) CONCRETE. This name is given to any mixture of mortar with fragments of stone or gravel, though it is now generally limited to that made with hydraulic mortar, or mortar made with a hydraulic cement, Certain limestones, when calcined, produce a natural hydraulic cement. As, however, the proportions of the elements vary in different pieces of the same rock, it is much better, in order to obtain a uniform product, to use the so-called Portland cement, in which the constituents are mechanically mixed in the proper proportions. This consists of a double silicate of lime and alumina about 60 parts of lime and 10 of alumina to 24 of silica, with 1 of magnesia and 2 of other alkalies, in a total of 100 parts. Carbonate and sulphate of lime should be especially excluded. This mixture should weigh 115 lbs. per bus., and bear 250 lbs. per sq. in. in tension. It should likewise be ground sufficiently fine for 85 per cent. to pass through a sieve of 50 meshes to the inch. It should feel rough, and be of a bluish-gray color, and when immersed in water of a uniform temperature for six days should show no cracks, but should set in from one to six hours. If mixed with lime it will not get so hard under water. As a test of its quality, it is recommended that blocks 14 in. sq. and 10 in. long, supported on edges 94 in. apart, should bear 150 lbs. at the centre; if more than 1 out of 3 are broken within one minute, the cement should be rejected. In Germany the usual test is for blocks of 5 sq. centimeters section to stand, under tension, 8 kilogrammes per sq. centimeter; the blocks having been for 24 hours in the air and for 27 days in water. It is there also specified that when the cement is passed through a sieve of 900 meshes per sq. centimeter, not more than 25 per cent. shall be too large to go through.

VOL. II.-U

CONCUSSION. The word concussion, originally applied in surgical writings to certain symptoms of several ill-defined conditions of the brain or spinal marrow, supposed to follow severe injuries not accompanied with external evidence of actual lesions, has gradually been narrowed down until now it has come to signify rather the injury itself than the phenomena resulting from it. At present, although it is at the best a misnomer, by concussion of the brain or spine the majority of surgeons mean that, in consequence of a severe blow, or some similar injury, generally unattended with fractured bones, or with extensive wounds, one of the following four conditions of the nerve centres has been produced: 1. A disturbance in the molecular relations of the nerve tissue, not demonstrable, of course, but aptly compared to the change in the particles of a magnet which causes it to lose its power when forcibly struck by a hammer. 2. An extravasation of serum into the nerve structures, due, it is thought, to a temporary vaso-motor paralysis. 3. Actual contusion or bruising of the brain or cord with extravasation of blood. 4. Laceration or tearing of the substance of the brain or cord. It would be better to limit the use of the term concussion to the first of these conditions, to which alone it is strictly applicable. The symptoms of the second and third are due either to pressure, compression, or to subsequent inflammatory changes; of the fourth to the actual disorganization of nerve structures. They may, however, be de

tions. Emaciation, general paralysis, and death usually terminate the case.

Passing from these cases to those in which some definite spinal injury exists, we find that here even more than in the brain it is difficult to dissociate the phenomena of so-called concussion and those of compression or of inflammation. Just as in cases where a serous or bloody exudation has taken place within the skull the symptoms of cerebral irritation pass insensibly into those of compression or of traumatic encephalitis, so in spinal injuries the alteration of sensation and motion and the disturbance of function, sometimes connected with very slight exudations or trifling hemorrhages, deepen into more or less extensive and profound paralysis, or give rise to spasms or convulsions, dyspnoea, retention of urine, fecal incontinence, priapism, and other symptoms of pressure upon or disorganization of the spine. The fact that each segment of the cord is really a distinct nerve centre makes it possible to determine accurately in these cases the exact seat and area of the lesion involved. So, too, the time of appearance and degree of severity of certain symptoms, such as motor paralysis, afford valuable evidence of the amount of involvement of the cord.

If after a spinal injury complete paralysis comes on immediately and persists, the cord is probably divided or compressed by an extensive blood-clot or by a broken vertebra. If it is merely transitory the condition has in all probability been one of slight hemorrhage into the substance of the cord. Such a case might be described as one of simple "concussion,' ," but the term, though convenient, is manifestly in

accurate.

Gradual paralysis, slowly advancing, is due either to continuous hemorrhage from a small vessel or to inflammatory extravasation. It sometimes slowly disappears. If it does not, or if it increases, the inference is that some progressive disorganization of the cord is taking place and will finally cause death.

Conditions are also either precedent or subsequent. A condition precedent is one which requires the performance of some act before the estate or interest can vest. Conditions precedent are said to be favored in law. Conditions subsequent are such as upon their happening divest an estate or interest which has already vested. Conditions subsequent are not favored in law. By the rules of the common law no person was entitled to take advantage of the breach of a condition subsequent except the grantor and his heirs. If, however, a limitation was annexed to an estate, a third party could take advantage of it. Hence the origin of what are known in real-estate law as conditional limitations, which are in substance conditions after the nature of limitations.

If a condition precedent be unlawful, and therefore void, the estate depending upon it can never vest, and is never entirely defeated. If, on the contrary, a condition subsequent be void, the estate, having once vested, can never thereafter be defeated.

Where performance of a condition was possible at the time of its creation, and afterwards through the act of God has become impossible, the law will excuse it. (L. L., JR.)

CONDONATION, in general language and sometimes in legal proceedings, is used to indicate a forgiveness of almost any offence; but it is technically applied in law to the forgiveness of only one or two particular offences. In this sense it is a forgiveness of the matrimonial offence of adultery or cruelty, known by the party forgiving to have been committed, on the condition that the party forgiven shall ever afterwards conduct himself or herself properly in the marital relation. The word is usually employed in reference to adultery and is best considered from that standpoint, though it is equally applicable to cruelty. When a husband or wife has been guilty of adultery, the party offended against has generally the right to a divorce from the bonds of matrimony, on the ground that the The treatment of cases of spinal injury in which other party has failed to adhere to the obligations there is no paralysis consists in rigid confinement to entered into on the marriage. But this right may be bed, preferably in the prone position so as to favor the given up, if the party so wills, and the husband and gravitation of blood away from the back; the applica- wife may agree to live together again. In order to tion of ice-bags, hot poultices, or strong counter-irrita- constitute a condonation, however, it is not enough tion along the spine; careful attention to the bowels that the party offended shall merely make an offer of and bladder, the former being emptied by enemata, forgiveness, in case the offending party will return to and the latter, if necessary, by catheterization; and the relation of man and wife, but the offer must have the administration of small doses of iodide of potassium been actually accepted and the marital relation reand mercury. The patient should rest on a water established; but it is not necessary that the parties bed, the skin should be kept scrupulously clean, and shall continue to live constantly together in that relathe parts exposed to pressure often bathed with as- tion; as to the husband, at least, it is enough if they tringents or with stimulating liniments. Where par- have once slept together. The mere fact of living toalysis exists, the supine position is preferable, and all gether in the same house of course creates a presumption these precautions must be even more rigidly observed. that the parties have resumed the marital relation, but (J. W. W.) this presumption will be rebutted by showing that they CONDITION, in law, a clause in a contract or agree- have occupied different beds. It is considered in law ment which has for its object to suspend, rescind, or that, where the marital relation is so re-established, modify the principal obligation, or in case of a will to there is an implied condition annexed that the party suspend, revoke, or modify a devise or bequest. In forgiven shall in the future conduct himself properly real-estate law a condition is a qualification or restric--with conjugal kindness in all respects-and, in case tion annexed to an estate, whereby it is provided that he or she fails to do so, the original offence is revived in case a particular event does or does not happen, or and can be alleged as a ground for a divorce. And in case the grantor or grantee does or omits to do a par- this is not only so, if the adultery is committed again, ticular thing, the estate shall commence, be enlarged, the rule is much stronger and the party must in all be abridged, or be defeated. ways behave himself in accordance with the duties of the relation. Even an offence which is cause only for a divorce from bed and board has been held to be a reviver of an adultery which has been condoned; and comparatively slight cruelty will also give the right to break off the condonation and reassert the first wrong. The rule as to cruelty especially is less severe against the wife than the husband, owing to the greater difficulty for her to take the means of avoiding the cruelty. Condonation may be shown in other ways than by continuing to live together in the relation of man and wife; thus, the abandoning or long neglect of proceedings instituted for a divorce, and perhaps mere words of forgiveness, are sufficient evidence that the

Conditions are of various kinds. They may be affirmative or negative, copulative or disjunctive, consistent or repugnant, express or implied; all of which are sufficiently defined by their names. Conditions may also be lawful or unlawful. A lawful condition is one which does not contravene public policy or the express provisions of a statute. An unlawful condition is such as is forbidden by law. Unlawful conditions are-1, such as require the performance of some act which is forbidden by law or which is malum in se; 2, such as require the omission of some act which the law requires to be performed; and 3, such as tend to encourage such acts or omissions.

the candy, the cake and ice-cream, the outside orders, and the restaurant or café. The latter is conducted on a more or less extended scale, the bill-of-fare often comprising fifty to sixty kinds of cake and twenty to thirty varieties of ices. For party orders the latter are served up in plain and fancy bricks, in melon moulds or other elaborate designs, with or without fruit ices, colored and set in spun sugar.

20 per cent. of sugar and glucose, and the same proportion of alcohol, the remainder being water. A finer quality contains 40 per cent. of sugar and 30 per cent. of alcohol, and the highest grade 50 per cent. of pure sugar and 30 per cent. of alcohol. This class includes spirituous bitters, such as absinthe, elixir de longue vie, vulneraire, etc., which have been brought to great perfection in France. American confectioners manifest their superiority chiefly in the manufacture As may be expected, competition among the trade of comfits, containing fruit essences, candied fruits, has led to numerous frauds and adulterations in mapreserves and jellies; in cocoanut cakes, bars, biscuits, terials used, in order to cheapen production. Baking and paste, stick candies, caramels, gum drops, and powder, which is used in many kinds of confections, walnut candy. Most of the above are of American is often found to contain starch and alum. Ultraorigin. Comfits have been brought to great perfection marine is sometimes employed in adulterating sugar during the last ten years, owing to the introduction of and saccharine preparations, to offset the yellow machinery in their production. In the days of the old color of inferior grades of sugar; cotton seed, walnut, copper pan, fifty pounds of well-finished comfits or and chestnut oils are sold for olive oil. Oil of lemon, dragées were considered a full day's work, whilst at the as well as others, are adulterated with fixed oils and present time a skilled workman can superintend a alcohol, and sometimes with turpentine, the latter dozen revolving steam-pans, capable of turning out being difficult to detect on account of its similar comfrom three to four tons a week. The new system has position and specific gravity. Chocolate is often mixed not only cheapened production, but is much cleaner with starch, wheaten flour, and other articles, and gluthan the use of fire-heat, and is attended with less risk cose is made to do duty for sugar in making caramels. of fire. These advantages have thrown the manu- Gelatine and glue often find their way into gum goods, facture into few hands, who make this class of goods a especially those known as "A. B. goods," starch into specialty. The new comfit or dragée pans are made lozenges, lard into chocolate; terra alba, or plaster of either to oscillate or revolve, both forms being equally Paris, is used in adulterating candies solely to increase suitable for the purpose. In the packing and wrap- their weight, and certain much more dangerous chemping of confections great taste is displayed, the style icals are sometimes used in coloring candies. The of boxes used being an important item in the make- most of the above-named adulterants are comparatively up of the bon-bons. The manufacture of boxes and harmless, and their introduction is mainly due to the other goods of this class is a separate industry, and of popular demand for cheap candies; but certain coloring late years has grown into large proportions. Steam-matters are positively pernicious, and their use deserves appliances are in use in all large establishments, as the severest penalties. well as benches, containing six, eight, and even ten machines, with rollers of various patterns, all set in gear. Each of these machines is provided with a lever and clutch wheel, so that one or all can be worked at Then there are machines for beating, kneading and mixing materials; for cutting, chopping, and slicing; for grinding, rolling, and grating; ice-crushers, cream-freezers, corking machines for bottling fruit juices and preserves, revolving ovens, steam-kettles, the saccharometer for testing sugar, etc., etc. These contrivances effect a vast economy in time and labor, as compared with the old methods. Twenty years ago, for instance, it was quite an exploit to cut a sevenpound boil of acid drops with scissors and round and press them flat in half an hour, whilst with the machine now in use a boy can do the same work and turn out the goods in better shape in five minutes. These improvements cover all the details of the laboratory, except where hand-work is indispensable to the quality of the goods, and have completely revolutionized the business. The quality of standard goods is greatly improved, necessitating corresponding changes in classification. Articles which a few years ago were imported from Paris or Vienna are now manufactured here in excess of the home demand, and are being exported to London and to Central and South America. Even ornamental work which a few years ago was prepared only by Parisian confectioners has become a home industry, the importations being mostly confined to samples. In pastillage work there are at least two hundred hands employed in the United States, chiefly in New York and Philadelphia. The product is shipped to all parts of the United States and the British Provinces.

once.

In the management of the mercantile parts of the business the same progress is everywhere perceptible. Stately warehouses, filled with an almost endless variety of goods, and crowded manufactories attest the magnitude of the wholesale branch of the business, whilst handsome retail stores, with their bewildering display of confections in every conceivable style and form, give equal evidence of the increased popular demand. The retail branch, in the leading establishments, is usually divided into four departments, viz.

Sugar is the base of all confectionery, and it therefore ranks first in importance among the materials used by the trade. There are two kinds-namely, the natural product of the cane, sugar beet, maple tree, and a few of the palms; and glucose, or grape sugar, which, as known to commerce, is artificially produced from starch by the action of sulphuric acid. Glucose is undoubtedly destined at no distant day to become a prime factor in the confectioner's economy. Glucose differs from cane sugar in not being readily crystalliz│able, and also in the smaller yield of sweetness. Its great value in the confectionery art consists in the fact that when added in the proportion of seven to ten per cent. to cane sugar, and boiled with it, it destroys the tendency of the latter to return to the crystallized form; in other words, it removes the grain, and thus dispenses with the employment of cream of tartar or acids for this purpose. On this account it is extensively used in the manufacture of "A. B. gum goods,' lozenges, "kisses," cocoanut preparations, and creams. It also gives to cream and pulled candy a certain waxiness-a desirable quality-and adds to the keeping properties of caramels, cough candies, and clear fruit drops, all of which have a tendency to become sticky when exposed to the air. Though its introduction has encountered much opposition, on the ground that it is an unhealthy adulterant, it is now conceded by competent chemists to be harmless and even nutritive; whilst in making confections of the class referred to above it is decidedly an advantage when not used to the comparative exclusion of cane sugar. American glucose is made from corn, and has been greatly improved of late by being thoroughly freed from the sulphuric acid with which it is prepared. In Europe. there are some ninety glucose factories, but there it is produced from potatoes. That manufactured in France stands higher in the market on account of its being freer from acid; but it does not appear to possess any more sweetening power than the products of the United States or of Germany. On the other hand American glucose has the advantage of being fifty per cent. cheaper.

One of the first requisites in the successful production of confectionery on a large scale is a knowledge