finances. Under the principal sciences are embraced cultivation of forests, forest implements, protection of forests, forest technology, forest surveying, appraising forests, calculation of the value of forests and forest statistics, administration of forests and hunting, redemption of rights of usage, forest history, and forest excursions. Under the third division are included civil and criminal law and jurisprudence, construction of roads, hunting and shooting exercises.

Five hours and a half daily are given to lectures on these and some subsidiary subjects, and as much more time to the study of these subjects in private.

A considerable amount of preliminary study is requisite as a condition of admission. Capt. Campbell Walker, of the English Forestry Service in India, was commissioned several years ago by the British Government to visit the German schools for the benefit of the Indian Service, and in his report he says:

Nothing struck me as more remarkable than the extent and varied nature of the studies required from forest candidates or probationers in Prussia, and the number of years they are content to spend, first in studying and then in waiting for an appointment. The would-be Oberförster, which is the lowest of what we would call the gazetted appointments," must, after passing certain terms at a Government school of the first class, spend a year with an "Oberförster" (over-forester) in a Revier (district or section of the forest), and then pass an examination as forest pupil, after which there is a two [two and a half] years' course at a forest academy and an examination in scientific forestry, land-surveying, etc., on pass ing which the pupil becomes a "Först-Kandidat" then another two years' practical study, during at least nine months of which he must actually perform the duties of a forester; after which comes the final Government examination, on passing which he enters the grade of Oberförster-Kandidat. The difference between the two examinations is explained to be that the first tests the candidate's knowledge of theoretical forestry and cognate sciences, while the latter tests his ability to apply what he has learned and capability for employment as Oberförster and in the higher grades.

After passing the final examination, the "Oberförster-Kandidat" is employed as an assistant in the academies and control-offices, in making forest-surveys and working plans, and sometimes acting in charge of a Revier, receiving certain daily or weekly allowances while so employed. After five or six years of this probation, he may look forward to being permanently appointed.

Thus we have at least five years spent in study, and another five in probation; the former without any pay, and the latter only with meager allowances, while actually employed, before the would-be forestofficer is installed, and the time is generally much longer. Yet so great 18 the desire for Government service, and particularly forest service, in Prussia and in Germany generally, that there is no lack of competitors.

Positions in the forestry service are permanent and are considered highly honorable, being often sought by persons of rank. Capt. Campbell says again :

Nothing that I can say or write can convey too high an idea of the attainments and thorough knowledge of their work possessed by German forest officers of all grades. A very little time served to convince me that the practice of the German foresters was as good as,

if not better than their theory, and that they were in fact perfect masters of their duties in all their details. An Oberförster, and even many of the Försters and overseers, can tell the name, local and botanical, of every tree, shrub, and plant, classify it, and state its uses; name and classify every beetle and insect in the forest, and know whether they are harmless or dewhat are the best known preventive measures; instructive to trees, in what shape they do damage, and form you of the nature of the soil, and to what period the formation belongs; what trees will grow best, and why. All this is known thoroughly, theoretically, and practically.

of growth, and annual increase in value of each Then as to the Revier (section), the exact yield, rate block is thoroughly known and can be put down at any moment in figures by the Oberförster, who can tell at the commencement of each year how much timber he is going to cut and sell, and from what to be partially cleared for natural reproduction, plantparts of the forest it is to come, how many acres have ed, sown, thinned, or planted up. The mere details of all this are left, as a rule, entirely to the subordinates, who thoroughly understand them.

Such is the system of forestry established throughout Europe. The governments there, without exception, guard their forests with jealous solicitude, and the people, to a great extent, have a corresponding regard for them, and sense of their value. Schools of forestry are established from Spain to Finland, and instruction on the subject is carried in some countries into the common schools. The United States Government, though possessing in its forests a property more valuable a hundred-fold than all its mines, has never counted them as of any worth. They have hardly been considered in connection with the public lands, which have been sold at a merely nominal price, and oftener have been given away to great corporations or whoever almost would take them. As a source of revenue, the forests have never been taken into account, while Prussia, with a forest area not exceeding the area of the single State of Indiana, receives an annual income of $6,000,000 above all her expenses of management. Our forests have not, probably, returned to the Government the cost of surveying them, if we can be said to have surveyed them at all. Trees which had been growing from one hundred to five hundred years have been cut down as though they were made to replace them. The forests, that stood but mushrooms, and no provision has been as sentinels to guard the streams of commerce and manufacturing industry and to insure fertility to our fields, we have swept away recklessly. Thus it has come to pass that we are beginning to suffer great evils, and greater are threatening us. The character of our streams, in many parts of the country, has been greatly them has been lessened or made fitful, and changed. The amount of water flowing in therefore lessened for all practical uses. We have floods and droughts where formerly the rivers were regular in their flow.

of forestry becomes one of great practical imWe have come to a point where the subject portance, and though we differ so much, in some respects, from the people of Europe, here

is a subject in regard to which we can take most valuable lessons from them. Whether forests actually increase the amount of rainfall may still, possibly, be matter of question. But the favorable action of masses of trees upon health and comfort, and their influence in protecting crops from injury, and thereby increasing the returns of the husbandman-in regard to this there can be no longer ground for debate.

It has been estimated by careful and scientific observers that the earth is in the best condition to subserve human welfare and comfort only as about a fourth part of the land is in a wooded state. The proportion may be allowed to vary from this somewhat, according to peculiarity of situation. England, for example, in a cool, northern latitude and surrounded by water, has such a moist atmosphere that she requires but a small forest area as compared with warmer and inland countries. The forest areas of various European countries, as given by the most recent official statistics, are as follow:

It will be seen from this table that Europe, taken together, has now a sufficient proportion of woodland, and that it is fairly distributed according to the special situation and needs of the different countries. Spain is probably suffering most from lack of forests. Russia is well wooded only in the northern portion, and in Sweden and Norway the forests are being cut off so rapidly, for exportation, as to cause alarm.

The forest area of the United States is large enough in itself, but it is unevenly distributed. The northern portion, originally well wooded, and with that most valuable lumbertree the white pine, has so far been denuded that serious results have already followed. The southern portion of the country is still heavily timbered, and much of its wooded area might be taken for agricultural purposes without disadvantage to any interest, if a proper selection could be made. But already extensive inroads have been made upon the forests of the South, and the process of destruction is going on with rapidity and carelessness. In

the western portion of the country, with the exception of the Pacific coast-region, there is a great scarcity of forests. There is the greatest need of husbanding what trees are to be found here, and of planting extensively on the prairies and on other sections which are destitute, or nearly so, of any tree-growth. Yet it is on this comparatively treeless region that the trees are being destroyed most recklessly. Much of the agricultural land can be cultivated profitably only by means of irrigation. But the destruction of the forests is continually lessening the supply of water in the streams upon which irrigation depends.

It is in this part of the country that the lands still owned by the Government are principally situated, and the best as well as the most desirable opportunity is offered to put in operation an effective system of forestry. The Government and great corporations are specially adapted to put in operation and carry on such a system of forestry as is needed. Those who hold only small parcels of land can not, if they would, establish a proper system. And where there are small tracts of woodland already existing, or if any shall be planted by individual landholders, there is no certainty that they will not be destroyed at any time.

We have taken a step in the right direction in establishing the Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming; and the President, in his last message, recommended that other portions of our woodlands, in which are the head-waters of some of our principal streams, should be preserved in their forest condition. We may well go further than this. Why should not the Government preserve all or nearly all its remaining woodlands, withdrawing them from sale at least until it can be ascertained, by careful and adequate examination, what portion is needed for agricultural use and can be spared for that purpose, then maintaining the rest in forest condition for the perpetual benefit of the country, and drawing from it at the same time a perpetual revenue?

The separate States, so far as they still possess lands, might well pursue a like course, and, where they have none, might encourage the landholders to engage in forest-planting. The establishment in some of our Western States of Arbor-Day, or tree-planting day, has been attended with the happiest results. It has already occasioned the planting of many millions of trees. There are in many, if not in most, of the States, considerable portions of land unfit for agricultural purposes, but which would be remunerative if occupied with trees. Most mountain-slopes and high hills are of this sort, as are many tracts of stony and swampy land on lower situations. The State might offer premiums for the best plantations of trees on such ground, or might exempt forest plantations from taxation for a certain number of years, until they should begin to yield an income from thinnings. As auxiliary to this, experiment stations would naturally be estab

lished, where, under competent directors, various methods of tree-planting and culture would be tried, and different kinds of trees would be planted, and their adaptations to soil and climate tested, and thus their comparative merits ascertained.

At such experiment stations would naturally be trained up a class of men who would be qualified to be intrusted with the management of the public forests. In process of time, with the establishment of a proper forestry system, there would come into being forestry schools, essentially like those of Europe, though modified by our peculiar circumstances.

The history of forestry in this country is briefly this. A few examples of the cultivation of forest-trees are to be found reaching back as far as a hundred years. But about forty years ago, the Messrs. Fay made the experiment of planting between 300 and 400 acres of poor stony or sandy land in Eastern Massachusetts with forest-trees. A few others have followed their example, and reclaimed in this way considerable tracts of the worthless sand-barrens of Cape Cod. Occasional plantings on a smaller scale have been made elsewhere, but it is only within a few years that the trees on the earliest of these plantations have reached a stature to show the result of the experiments, or call attention to them. Most of these experiments have been successful and encouraging.

About twenty years ago, the late Hon. George P. Marsh, who had long been a resident abroad as the representative of this country in European states, published "The Earth and Man, or Physical Geography as modified by Human Action." One of its longest chapters was devoted to a discussion of the subject of forests and their influence. His work, a later edition of which bears the title "Man and Nature," is the best treatise on the subject in the English language, and is constantly referred to as an accepted authority even by writers in Germany and France, where the literature of forestry is very voluminous.

Ten years subsequent to the publication of Mr. Marsh's book, the subject of forestry was taken into consideration by the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and a memorial was sent by that body to Congress, calling attention to the rapid destruction of our forests and the dangers threatening the country in consequence, and asking for some appropriate legislation on the subject. In 1876 Congress directed the Commissioner of Agriculture to ascertain the facts in regard to our forests, the best means of preserving and renewing them, the influence of forests upon climate, and the system of forest management in use in other countries. As the result of this action, agents have been employed by the Department of Agriculture in making investigations, and their reports have been published. These reports contain a large mass of information, and have been widely distributed.

A Forestry Association was also formed a few years ago, which, in 1882, was merged in a Forestry Congress, instituted at that time. This body, composed of persons in this country, and also in Canada, who are interested in forestry, has held three sessions, the last of which was at St. Paul, in August, 1883. Papers relating to forestry were read, and discussions ensued. The discussions and recommendations have been widely published, and have led to important legislative action in several of our own States and in the Dominion of Canada. During the past year a State Forestry Association has been formed in Ohio, and measures have been taken to establish experiment stations in that State. Commissioners of forestry have also been appointed in several of the States, and instruction in forestry is given in connection with some of the agricultural colleges.

But perhaps the most important indication of an awakened interest in forestry is seen in the recent movement for the preservation of the great Adirondack forests in New York. Mr. Marsh, in his book already alluded to, called attention to these forests, and urged the importance of their preservation, in order to maintain the proper flow of that great highway of commerce, the Hudson river, as well as on other accounts. But his words were unheeded, or, if heeded, they resulted in no efficient action until recently. But at last public attention has been aroused to such an extent that the Legislature of the State made a small appropriation a year ago for the purchase of a portion of the Adirondack lands with a view to reclothing them with forests. More recently a movement has been made, led by the Chamber of Commerce of New York, designed to secure further legislation on the subject, and an appropriation sufficient to purchase such an amount of land as, in connection with what the State now owns, will insure the protection of the head-springs of the Hudson and other important streams.

Forestry is receiving increased attention also in Great Britain, on account of its bearings upon her Indian and Australian possessions. The destruction of the forests there has gone on with alarming rapidity. India has actually imported railroad-ties from Norway and Sweden, because her accessible forests had been stripped of the proper timber for such use. The attention of the British Government has been aroused by this condition of things, and measures have been taken for the preservation of the remaining forests and the planting of new ones. Though having no forest schools of her own in which to train up persons competent to direct the management of forests, the Government for several years has sent a number of pupils annually to the French and German schools, to be trained for the Indian and Colonial service. The reports for the past year show a very encouraging condition of the forests both in India and Australia. Large

areas have been placed under efficient protection, and considerable tracts of denuded land have been planted. Quite recently instruction in forestry has begun to be given in connection with one of the schools of technology in London, and there is some prospect of the establishment of a forestry-school in England. FRANCE, a republic in Western Europe. The republic was proclaimed Sept. 4, 1870. The Constitution was adopted Feb. 25, 1875, by the National Assembly elected in 1871. The Chamber of Deputies is elected by universal suffrage under the scrutin d'arrondissement, which was adopted Nov. 11, 1875. Each arrondissement is represented by a deputy, and, if its population is in excess of 100,000, by additional deputies for each 100,000 or part of 100,000 beyond that number. The number of electors in 1881 was 10,179,345. The number of deputies is 557. The Senate is composed of 300 members, 75 of whom are chosen for life, the Senate electing the successors of deceased members. The remaining 225 are elected, 75 every three years, by the departments and provinces. They are chosen by senatorial electors, elected to represent each of the communes and municipalities, together with the members of the Council General and the deputies of the department, who possess votes ex officio. The Chamber of Deputies is elected for four years. The National Assembly meets annually on the second Tuesday in January, and must remain in session five months. The President of the Republic can call an extraordinary session, and is compelled to do so if one half of the members of each Chamber unite in demanding it. The two Chambers possess equal and concurrent powers of legislation; but all financial measures must originate in the Chamber of Deputies. The executive head of the republic is the President, who is elected for the term of seven years by a majority of the deputies and senators in joint session. The President has the disposal of the military forces, makes all appointments, civil and military, and can propose legislation; but all acts must be countersigned by the ministers, who are appointed by the President, and are responsible to the Chambers.

The Government.-The President of the Republic is François P. Jules Grévy, born in 1813, who was a member of the Constituent Assembly of 1848, President of the Assembly from 1871 to 1873, and President of the Chamber of Deputies from 1876 to 1879; elected January 30, 1879.

The Cabinet, appointed February 21st, is composed as follows:

President of the Council and Minister of Public Instruction, Jules Ferry, who was born at Paris in 1823, admitted to the bar in 1848, member of the Government of National Defense (1870-'71), Prefect of the Seine Department (1871-'72), Embassador to Greece (1872 -73), Minister of Public Instruction and Fine Arts (1879-'80), President of the Council (1880

'81), and Minister of Public Instruction in 1882.

Minister of Foreign Affairs, Paul Amand Challemel-Lacour, born in 1827, Professor of Philosophy at Pau and Limoges (1849-'51), expelled from France in 1852, returned in 1859, Prefect of Rhône and Commissaire of the Republic (1870), delegate to the National Assembly (1872), Senator (1876), Embassador to Switzerland (1879-'80), to England (1880-'82). Minister of the Interior, Pierre Marie Waldeck-Rousseau, born in 1846, advocate, deputy since 1879, Minister of the Interior in Gambetta's ministry.

Minister of Finance, P. Paul Emmanuel Tirard, incumbent in the two preceding ministries, born in 1826, engineer and merchant, Minister of Commerce (1879-'81), reappointed Jan. 31, 1882; appointed Minister of Finance Aug. 7, 1882.

Minister of Justice, Félix Martin Feuillée, born in 1830, deputy since 1876, Under-Secretary of the Interior in 1879, and of Justice in December, 1879.

Minister of Commerce, Anne Charles Hérisson, born in 1831, advocate, deputy (1878), held over from the Duclerc Cabinet.

Minister of Agriculture, Félix Jules Méline, born in 1888, lawyer, deputy in 1872 and 1876, Under-Secretary of the Interior in 1879.

Minister of War, Gen. Thibaudin, entered the army in 1848, lieutenant-colonel of cavalry (1868), brigadier general (1877), general of division (1880), appointed Jan. 31, 1883.

Minister of Marine and the Colonies, Charles Marie Brun, born in 1821, engineer by profession, Director of Naval Construction (1875), elected deputy (1871), senator (1876).

Minister of Posts and Telegraphs, Louis Cochery, born in 1880, Under-Secretary in the Ministry of Finance (1873–179), first appointed Feb. 5, 1879.

Minister of Public Works, David Raynal, born in 1840, deputy (1876), Under-Secretary of Public Works (1880), head of the same ministry in the Gambetta Cabinet (1881).

In August M. Brun resigned on account of ill-health, and was succeeded by Admiral Peyron, Maritime Prefect of Toulon.

In October Gen. Thibaudin handed ever his portfolio to Gen. Campenon. The latter was a staff officer at the time of the coup d'état, and was exiled for his republican opinions. He went to Tunis and reorganized the army of the Bey, but returned soon to France and served in Algeria, in Italy, and in China. He was Minister of War under Gambetta.

Area and Population.-The area of France is 528,572 square kilometres. The population returned in the census of 1881 was 37,672,048. In 34 of the 87 departments there was a decrease in population between 1876 and 1881, attributed to a decline in the number of marriages. The excess of births over deaths in France amounted to 280,000 per annum between 1820 and 1830, falling to 51,200 between