They think that when society is organized on a proper basis, the functions of government and the principle of authority will become obsolete, that practical tasks will be delegated voluntarily, as outside of the sphere of government they are in a great measure, to persons who show the requisite knowledge and skill, and that, when it is necessary to take counsel, informal bodies-local, industrial, or more general-untramineled by a rigid legal constitution, will establish themselves spontaneously. The Socialists of the old schools-Phalansterians, Proudhonians, Positivists-have ceased agitation. Those now in the field, as they became more disappointed and out of harmony with the republic, grew violent and revolutionary in their attitude. The more politic and ambitious, who throve by agitation-such as Louise Michel, Lissagaray, Rochefort, Félix Pyat, Emile Digeon, and other editors and orators did not compromise themselves by adopting any system of socialistic doctrine, but followed the popular revolutionary drift, and grew more inflammatory in their language.

The meeting of the unemployed workingmen was held on the Esplanade des Invalides. It was arranged by one of the numerous groups of agitators, and was consequently discouraged by the rival agitators. About 4,000 people assembled, a considerable proportion of whom were actually distressed mechanics in the building-trade and Paris industries. The police kept the crowd moving, and when Louise Michel, the orator of the day, appeared, she was interrupted in the beginning of her address. Suddenly, at a signal-cry, the crowd started for the presidency, but were driven back by the police. The whole programme of the demonstration was prearranged, and the spectators far outnumbered the participants, many of them reactionaries, wishing and expecting a serious collision with the police. When the passage of the Bridge de la Concorde was opposed by the police, the mob made a show of resistance, and a brief struggle took place before they retired. A band of those who did not join the demonstration on the Elysée followed Louise Michel up the Boulevard. Some of them entered the bakers' shops demanding bread. If the shopkeepers refused to give them loaves, they broke the windows and helped themselves. This episode formed no part of the original programme, in which the assembly and the police acted their parts with formal regularity. Louise Michel did not suggest the proceedings, but, when she saw them, laughed at the ingenious idea.

The carpenters' demonstration and march on the residence of President Grévy was only one of many signs that the French working-man, now pinched by hard times, was determined to call the republic to account for neglecting social legislation. The excitement was intense among all classes. The political parties all endeavored to make capital out of the situation. The Bonapartists and Legitimists accused the VOL. XXIII.-24 A

Republicans of having brought the distress upon the working-class, and were themselves accused of having instigated the riot of March 9th, and of being in league with Anarchists. The crisis in the building trade was ascribed in part to the pampering of the working-class by the municipality of Paris, which paid high wages to carpenters, and forced up the scale until work could be done in the provinces 15 to 20 per cent. cheaper. Wages were said to have risen 60 per cent. in the building trades since 1875.

A second demonstration was attempted on Sunday, March 11th, but the Government adopted vigorous measures for the repression of revolutionary agitation. A great number who took part in the demonstrations of the 9th were arrested and sentenced to short terms of imprisonment. Louise Michel gave herself up, after evading the police for a week or two. On June 21st Louise Michel, with eight other persons, were put on trial on the charge of inciting to pillage. This orator and poet of the social revolution was forty-six years old. Before she entered upon the career of a communistic agitator she was a school-teacher. She had endured the horrors of exile in New Caledonia, and returned with the last of the amnestied communards. On one of her companions was found a revolver, and in his lodgings explosives and many copies of a pamphlet such as had been recently distributed among the soldiers, inciting them to burn their barracks. He was a book-agent, named Pouget, twentythree years old. The two prisoners conducted their own defense, injecting political sarcasms and denunciations into their pleas. They were pronounced guilty, and sentenced-Louise Michel to six and Pouget to eight years' imprisonment, with ten of police supervision for both.

Labor Legislation. The problem of artisans' dwellings was a branch of the labor question which the Premier took up with sympathy and zeal, as the solution would remove a growing evil and at the same time provide work for the clamorous carpenters and masons of Paris. He entered into arrangements with the Land Bank, by which advances would be made to contractors to put up cottages, constructed on the best models for comfort and sanitation, in the environs of Paris. These dwellings, 13,000 in number, built at a total cost of 20,000,000 francs, were to be sold to working-men, and paid for in annual payments, which are somewhat less than the ordinary rent of apartments in the slums of Paris, but which will pay 5 per cent. interest and extinguish the principal in twenty years. These payments are guaranteed by the Government. At the same time, the municipality of Paris guaranteed loans amounting to 50 millions, at the same rate of interest and conditions of amortization, for the construction of model tenement-houses containing 26,000 dwellings. The rents range from 150 to 300 francs per annum. The tenants are partly relieved from taxes. The same system is

to be extended to the provinces, where greatly increased rents and industrial depression have created the same house-famine.

The cost of living among French workingpeople was computed from inquiries at Mulhouse by M. Armangaud, a statistician, to range from 1,100 to 3,000 francs per annum. Of the total, rent consumes 15 per cent., clothing 16 per cent., food 61 per cent., and miscellaneous expenses 8 per cent. Of the expenditure for food, 33 per cent. is for bread, 14 per cent. for meat, 13 per cent. for milk, 24 per cent. for groceries, and 16 per cent. for other aliments. Judicature Bill. A bill passed the National Assembly, without encountering the expected difficulty in the Senate, which forms part of a general scheme for the reform of the judicature elaborated by Gambetta and Cazot, President of the Court of Cassation. The French judiciary still consisted under the republic in great part of members of the hereditary caste who under the ancient régime transmitted the ermine from father to son. The smallness of the stipends precluded lawyers from accepting judicial positions, and the exclusive circle of the descendants of the old noblesse de robe made it unpleasant for any one not of their own class to enter the magistracy, though he had a private fortune sufficient to sustain its expensive state. The judgments rendered by this provincial aristocracy in political cases have been a scandal. They have refused to give effect to laws directed against monarchical and clerical intrigue, and have persisted in treating republicans as though they were the enemies of the established order. Gambetta was, for instance, condemned to four months' imprisonment for declaring that Marshal MacMahon must yield to the will of the nation or resign, and 2,700 sentences were recorded against republicans for resisting by legal methods the revolutionary plot of the monarchists to overturn the republic. Gambetta's project of reform was to reduce the excessive number of judges, increase the salaries, and recruit the bench entirely from the legal profession. The judicature act suspended the irremovability of judges for three months in order to enable Minister Feuillée to reduce their number by selecting and retiring 600 of them on pensions.

Anti-Clerical Legislation.—M. Grévy, at the reception of the new Papal nuncio, Mgr. Camille de Rende, assured him that "the protection due to religion, and the strengthening of the bonds of friendship existing between France and the Holy See, will be the object of our constant solicitude." The deputies, however, evinced by a number of enactments their hostility to the Church. The Chamber abolished the state subsidies to hospital chaplains, and decided that there should be no division between the Christian and Israelite portions of a cemetery, from which even the cross at the entrance was to be removed. Recognizing M. Grévy's disposition for conciliation, the Pope, in June, sent him a private letter complaining

of the hardships which the French clergy had to suffer under the republic, and asking his influence to procure an amelioration of their condition, and to prevent a rupture between the republic and the Vatican. M. Grévy replied in a conciliatory manner. This reply was followed by a dispatch from M. Jules Ferry, pointing out that it was difficult for a government to check a movement against the clericals while the latter remained so essentially hostile.

Wars in Tonquin and Madagascar.-The colonial policy which was adopted as more profitable than a European foreign policy-that is, as a renunciation, as far as the republic is concerned, of the revenge idea, and an escape from the risks and disquiet of the situation created by Gambetta-gave the Government and the public much to occupy themselves with in 1883 (see articles on TONQUIN and Madagascar). The intention to establish a protectorate in Tonquin was announced in the beginning of May, and the first vote of credit sanctioning the scheme obtained. That same month came tidings of the defeat and death of Rivière. Thenceforth the credits were granted with practical unanimity, and the Government was supported in the prosecution of the enterprise and the diplomatic conflict with China.

The difficulties with the Hova government in Madagascar were a heritage from the Duclerc ministry. At about the time of Rivière's defeat the French men-of-war bombarded the Malagasy ports. The operations, and the Shaw affair, which was settled by paying the aggrieved missionary, are elsewhere described.

Insult to the King of Spain.-In August an article denouncing the French as disturbers of the peace of Europe appeared in the "North German Gazette." As soon as the annoyance caused by this had subsided in France, the German Emperor appointed the King of Spain, on his visit to Berlin, colonel of a regiment stationed at Strasburg, which appointment was deemed by the French a deliberate insult. Preparations had been made to give the King, on his return from the autumn manœuvres at Hamburg, a warm welcome to Paris. The Radicals now raised an outcry, and it was feared that some disturbance might take place. On September 29th, on arriving at the station, the King was formally greeted by M. Grévy and M. Jules Ferry, but, outside the station, and throughout the whole of the King's drive to the embassy, a mob assailed him with groans, and cries of "Down with the Uhlan!" On subsequently paying an official visit to M. Grévy at the Elysée, a crowd made a rush at the carriage, and the King was again mobbed and insulted. Next day President Grévy paid a visit to the King, and, in the name of France, begged that he would not identify her with the "wretches" who had compromised her renown by demonstrations which he repudiated; he also prayed the King to attend the state banquet which was to be held in his Majesty's honor at the Elysée that

evening. The King consented, on condition that the apology tendered by President Grévy should be made public. President Grévy agreed to this, and the King attended the banquet, leaving the next morning for Madrid. The mere publication of the explanations in the official gazette was not objected to, but the demand for a diplomatic document was not acceded to.

Cabinet Questions.-The Minister of War, Gen. Thibaudin, was a disturbing element in the Cabinet from the beginning. He sought his support from the Radical factions, and became gradually estranged from his colleagues. Though he displayed ability and energy, and elaborated important improvements in the service, he imported into the army more of the political element which continually weakens its efficiency by destroying the esprit du corps that formerly existed. By refusing to allow Gen. Gallifet to conduct the cavalry manoeuvres, he came into conflict with his colleagues, but was compelled to yield. After the insult to King Alfonso, Gen. Thibaudin, who was blamed for not taking precautions, and who had refused to take part in the reception, resigned his office.

The Budget. The finance committee of the Chamber insisted on a balanced budget, and little progress was made until the autumn session, which was devoted to this subject. M. Tirard's rectified estimates still showed a deficit of 65 millions. He was compelled to submit, in order to obtain an approximate balance, to a reduction in the sinking-fund appropriation, although he had declared on taking office that the amortization should on no account be intermitted.

FRIENDS. The Orthodox branch of the Society of Friends includes the London and Dublin Yearly Meetings; eleven Yearly Meetings in America, viz., those of Canada, New England, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, North Carolina, Ohio, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, and the Western Yearly Meeting, and small bodies in Norway and Australia. These meetings assist in the maintenance of missions in India, Madagascar (where the Friends co-operate with the London Missionary Society), Mount Lebanon in Syria, in Mexico, among the North American Indians, and in the home countries of the several bodies. The reports made to the meetings and the statistical returns show that the decline in numbers of the society, which was remarked several years ago, has been arrested, and that, except in some of the Eastern meetings in the United States, the masses of the members are young.

The statistical reports for 1882 show the number of members of the Society of Friends in Great Britain and Ireland to be 18,000, besides some 5,790 persons who were not members, but who usually attended Friends' meetings. About 35,000 persons, only 3,000 of whom regularly attended Friends' meetings, were receiving instruction in First-day schools.

The London Friends' Tract Association had issued during the year 131,328 tracts, including editions in French, German, and Welsh.

Reports were made at the Indiana Yearly Meeting, in September, concerning home-mission meetings, prison meetings, and temperance union meetings that had been held during the year. Efforts in behalf of temperance had received especial attention, and had made great progress. The New York Yearly Meeting has the distribution of two funds-the Lindley Murray Fund, of $50,000, the interest of which is distributed among charities; and the Moscher Fund, of $13,000, which is devoted to the distribution of books relating to the interests of the Friends.

The Associated Committee of Friends on Indian Affairs received during the year ending in June, 1883, $4,183, and expended $3,171. Seven boarding-schools and ten dayschools were sustained, and three schools among the Shawnees in the Cherokee country were assisted by the committee; and the schools in the Sac and Fox, Osage, and Cheyenne and Arapahoe agencies returned an enrollment of 602 pupils. Arrangements had been made under the direction of the Indiana Yearly Meeting for the reception and education of Indian children at White's Manual Labor Institute, near Wabash, Ind., in behalf of which $3,204 had been raised for the provision of buildings, and where fourteen boys and thirteen girls had been received. Indian girls who were taken to Trinity College, N. C., were found to be detrimental to the school.

The progress which has been made within the Society of Friends in adaptation to the changed conditions of modern life and thought is practically exemplified in the revised version of the "Book of Christian Discipline" which was issued, under the auspices of the London Yearly Meeting, to the members of the society in November. The present edition is the fourth that has been made since the book was first published, in the latter part of the last century. The volume is divided into three parts: The first part, relating to "Christian Doctrine," consists chiefly of extracts from the journal of George Fox, and from the minutes of the yearly meetings; the second part treats of "Church Practice "; and the third part, on "Church Government," relates to the order of meetings, the functions of officers, the mode of transferring members, and other internal regulations. The changes made in revision, which are considerable in number, are chiefly in the second and third parts. Some of them have been rendered proper by changes made in the civil laws since the last edition of the book was issued, as in the case of the repeal of compulsory church-rates; some by changes of opinion within the society; and some by the desire of the body to include later advices than those that had previously appeared. While the rules against "foolish and wicked pastimes," denouncing as such

"balls, gaming-places, horse-races, and playhouses," still stand, advice is now added enforcing the "duty of taking needful recreation," without which, it is observed, neither physical nor mental faculties can be preserved in a healthy condition. The counsel against the use of music is removed, while the caution against musical entertainments, especially against those "musical exhibitions in which an attempt is made to combine religion with a certain amount of amusement," is retained. The testimony against "ecclesiastical demands" is modified, but a minute is retained expressing continued belief that the "union of the Church with the state derives no support from the New Testament." To the pro

GAS. For many years gas-manufacture has been one of the most conservative of the industries, but the past ten years have seen a great advance in coal-gas processes, and the successful development of the manufacture of water-gas.

The great improvements introduced into the coal-gas manufacture may be referred to the furnace, retort-charging, and scrubbing. The general process is simple, and does not admit of much further development.

Furnaces. About ten years ago one of the prevailing ideas of gas-engineers was, that a yield of 9,500 cubic feet per ton of coal, and of 6,000 cubic feet per retort daily, was good practice. The belief prevailed that a higher heat, productive of higher yields, would injure the quality of the gas. Later experience has controverted this idea. The tendency toward higher heats has grown, and the size of retorts has increased, until yields of 11,420 cubic feet per ton and 9,000 cubic feet or more per retort are frequently reached. It is especially in New England that these results are attained. The revolution in metallurgy and glass-making, due to the invention of the Siemens regenerative furnace, is known to all scientific readers. It was not till several years after its invention that gas-engineers adopted it. It was found to answer all expectations, but presented some objectionable features. To contain the regenerative chambers of the furnaces, a large excavation was necessary, involving considerable additional expense in building the furnaces. The gas-generator was an extra and costly piece of apparatus. Serious changes were necessary wherever the new furnaces were introduced into old retort-houses. Several modified furnaces were invented, combining some of the characteristics of Siemens's furnace with those of the old retort-bench. The new furnaces are all constructed on the same general principles. The fireplace is deep, with a grate of very small area. A limited supply of air, sometimes with the addition of a little steam, is admitted below, and passes through the thick bed of in

longed testimony against war is added an extract from a former expression of the society against "military centers." The "Queries," or questions to be answered by meetings to their superior meetings, are simplified and so modified as to bring them into closer accord with the circumstances of modern life; a summary is given of a simplified form of marriage regulations, and considerable space is occupied with the statement of the rules in regard to removals, appeals, arbitration, and other internal arrangements of the society. The changes that are recorded are chiefly those that have taken place within the last twenty years, but are now, for the first time, placed in the official code or law of the denomination.

candescent coke, thus producing carbonic-oxide gas and hydrogen. The gas rises into the oven containing the retorts, where it meets a new supply of heated air. A vivid, intensely hot combustion takes place, heating the retorts containing the coal. The hot gases from the combustion pass off through flues, parallel with other flues, through which the second air-supply enters. This heats the air before the final combustion, and in this heating of the air is seen to some extent the regenerative element of the Siemens furnace. The modifications just described amount to a more compact and cheaper construction of the same device. The results achieved by them affect economy of labor, economy of fuel, and higher heats, with consequent higher yields. The improved furnaces are so disposed that less labor is required in working them. The heat developed in the fireplace is comparatively low, so that less deterioration of the furnace takes place and less labor is required in removing the slag. The saving in fuel amounts to 30 per cent.

At first sight it would appear that the heat developed in the furnace in the carbonic-oxide combustion is lost, as it is not applied directly to heating the retorts. But this is not the case, as the carbonic-oxide gas is generated at a high temperature, enters the oven when very hot, and so transmits the heat of the furnace to the retorts. As in the original Siemens furnace, both elements, gas and air, are hot. The increase in the temperature of the retorts is very remarkable; comparatively small retorts carbonize large amounts of coal. The increased expense of the improved furnaces can be recouped to a certain extent by the fewer or smaller retorts necessary.

Hot-Coke Firing.-Any one who is familiar with the old gas processes must have been impressed with the inconsistency in the treatment of coke. It is drawn red-hot from the retorts, cooled off by dashing water upon it, and when perfectly cold a portion of it is used for the fires. Some of the furnaces just described use the hot coke as it comes from the retorts. It

is charged directly into them, thus not only saving that amount of heat, which is less than might be imagined, but also saving the labor of again handling the coke. In one of the large works of this city, where it has not yet been deemed advisable to introduce the new furnaces, an economy of labor and fuel is secured by charging the old style of furnaces with hot coke as it comes from the retort. It is drawn into a peculiarly shaped iron barrow, which is then wheeled in front of the furnace-door, and the coke is pushed in.

Retort-Charging. Many efforts have been made here and abroad to do away with the laborious hand-charging. Apparatus has been tried by which a scoop of the length of a retort was introduced by machinery into the retort, and was then inverted, opened, or had its bottom withdrawn, dropping the charge of coal upon the bottom of the retort. These machines are preceded by another one which draws the coke from the retort. In all cases they work on the principle of the old-fashioned "drawing-rake." The coke is raked or hoed out of the retort, exactly as in the old hand-process. A very ingenious machine has recently been introduced for charging retorts, in which a jet of steam is made to drive the coal before it into the retort. As may be surmised, this is of extremely simple construction. A steam nozzle is arranged with a quick-opening valve so that a sudden puff of steam can be discharged. A scoop or pipe leads the coal down in front of the nozzle, and, by a succession of openings of the valve, the coal is driven in two or three installments into the retort. By graduating the force of the jets of steam, the coal can be deposited with great regularity along the entire length of the retort. An unsuccessful attempt has been made to use the same principle in discharging retorts.

The great objection to the mechanical stokers was their size, complexity, and consequent expense. By the use of the steam-jet these objectionable features, at least, were to a great extent obviated.

Scrubbers. It is surprising how long it took gas-engineers to learn to wash the ammonia out of gas. For years, hardly an attempt was made to remove the ammonia economically and thoroughly. William Mann, of England, was one of the earliest to enter the field. He introduced his coke-scrubbers at many English works, where they met with complete success. Their construction is very simple, their efficiency being due to their size. They are iron towers, sometimes sixty or seventy feet high, which are filled with coke, and supplied with water at the top; this, trickling down through the coke, effectually absorbs the ammonia from the gas, which is driven up through the mass. Less than a gallon of water suffices for each thousand cubic feet of gas. Ammoniacal liquor of improved quality and high commercial value is also thus obtained. Another form of scrubber contains a series of vertical re

volving disks, perforated with many holes, whose lower areas dip into water. The gas passes through these disks and is thereby very efficiently washed. The water is so distributed that the first disk is moistened with clean water, the next with the weakest ammoniacal liquor, and so on, the water regularly passing from end to end of the scrubber, against the current of the gas.

Other Improvements. In the purification of gas the general practice has adhered to lime. Some very remarkable results have been achieved with bone-black, but they have led to no extensive practical use. Heating the gas with a small percentage of air before purification has also been tried, but with only experimental results. A new method of working purifiers has been introduced. Purifiers are arranged universally in sets of four, with center seal arranged to keep three of them continuously working, and one of the set always off for cleaning and refilling. By the new system either three or four purifiers can be kept in operation. Three are used while the fourth is being replenished, after which four are put to work, and kept so until the third purifier stains lead-paper, then the center seal is turned so as to reduce the working number to three, while the other one is cleaned out and refilled. A double center seal of peculiar construction is required for this process. The general idea is to keep four purifiers at work whenever possible, only reducing to three when one is to be cleaned out.

Water-Gas. In this subject we meet with a genuine revolution. For many years it was the dream of engineers to obtain its hydrogen from water and utilize it for gas. Patent after patent has been taken out for hydrogen processes, which generally were based on two principles-reduction of steam by heated carbon, or by heated iron. In the first process, a mixture of carbonic oxide and hydrogen, theoretically in equal volumes, is produced. In the second process hydrogen only is generated, in volume three fourths that of the carbon gases. As carbon, molecule for molecule, is far cheaper than iron, and as it produces a greater volume of gas per molecule, it is universally used for the production of the hydrogen. The only departure from this rule is where a balloon is to be inflated; then iron may be used to decompose the steam, as it gives a far lighter gas. Thus the hydrogengas, so often named by the water-gas engineer, is really a mixture, containing only 50 per cent. of its name-giving element.

The flame of this "hydrogen," as we shall call it, is blue, and practically non-luminous. It resembles the lambent flame seen on the upper surface of a hard-coal fire, its blue color being due to the carbonic oxide it contains. To be of use in gas-lighting, it must be made luminous. It is not easy to say what is in the future, but to-day, whether it be electric light or gaslight, candles or oil, the source of all